WOODEN 
SHIP-BUILDING 


By 

CHARLES  DESMOND 


» •  „  'J    •  • , 


NEW    YORK 

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9  MURRAY  STREET 

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COPYRIGHT  1919 

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Introduction 

THE  object  of  this  book  is  to  place  at  the  disposal 
of  builders  of  wood  ships  some  much  needed  in- 
formation about  construction  and  equipment.  Each 
principal  part  of  a  vessel's  construction  is  explained,  the 
information  being  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
reader  can  either  use  the  book  for  reference  purposes  and 
quickly  obtain  from  it  desired  information  about  any  selected 
part  of  hull  or  equipment,  or  he  can  read  the  book  as  one 
continuous  story  covering  the  construction  and  equipment 
of  a  vessel. 

If  it  is  desired  to  make  use  of  the  book  for  reference 
purposes,  turn  to  indexed  name  of  part  or  piece  you  desire  in- 
formation about.    (The  headings  are  arranged  alphabetically.) 

The  photographs  used  to  make  the  illustrations  Figs. 
29,  31,  38,  43a,  43b,  44,  47,  53,  57,  66,  69,  74,  75,  76,  76a, 
77,  78,  79,  84,  92,  93,  95a,  124  and  125,  and  of  the  Accoma  are 
copyright  Underwood  &  Underwood. 

The  illustrations  numbered  Figs.  81,  81a,  97  and  99 
are  published  by  the  courtesy  of  Ingersoll-Rand  Co. 

The  illustration  Fig.  73  in  Chapter  X  is  copyright 
by  the  Publishers'  Photo  Service. 

The  Author. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Classification  and  Insurance 5 

II.  Information  About  Woods 7 

III.  Kinds  and  Dimensions  of  Material  to  Use 19 

IV.  Tonnage    25 

V.  Strains  Experienced  by  Ships 30 

VI.  Estimating   and   Converting 36 

VII.  Joints  and  Scarphs 39 

VIII.  Describing  the  Different  Parts  of  a  Ship  Constructed  of  Wood 46 

IX.  Building  Slips  and  Launching  Ways 66 

X.  Building  a   Ship 80 

XI.  Ship  Joinery    108 

XII.  Sails 123 

XIII.  Rigging   : 129 

XIV.  Masts  and  Spars '. 143 

XV.  Types  of  Vessels 148 

XVI.     Anchors,  Chains  and  Equipment 156 

XVII.     Resolution  and  Composition  of  Forces 167 

XVIII.      Strength  and  Strains  of  Material 169 

XIX.     Plans     180 

XX.     Definitions  of  Terms  Used  by  Shipbuilders  and  Parts  of  Wooden 

Ships     201 

Useful  Tables 212 

Paragraph  Reference  Index 219 

Alphabetical  Index  221 

Index  to  Illustrations 223 

Index  to  Plans 224 


Chapter  I 

Classification  and  Insurance 


In  almost  every  instance  kinds  and  dimensions  of  ma- 
terials to  use  for  constructing  a  ship  are  determined  by 
the  designer,  or  builder,  in  accordance  with  rules  laid 
down  by  the  classification  society  that  will  classify  the 
vessel  for  insurance  purposes. 

I  a.    Classification  for  Insurance  Explained 

Seagoing  vessels  are  classified  for  insurance  because 
unless  this  is  done  insurance  rates  for  vessel  and  for 
cargo  carried  cannot  be  fixed  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

When  a  ship  owner  contracts  with  a  builder  for  a  new 
vessel  he  generally  stipulates  that  the  vessel  shall  be  built 
to  conform  with  the  classification  rules  of  a  known  classi- 
fication society,  and  selects  the  class  he  desires  vessel 
to  enter ;  and  the  builder,  knowing  these  things,  obtains  a 
copy  of  building  rules  and  dimensions  of  material  tables 
issued  by  the  named  classification  society  and  constructs 
the  vessel  to  conform  to  the  rules. 

These  rules  stipulate  the  kinds  and  dimensions  of 
materials  that  must  be  used  for  each  principal  part  of 
hull  and  equipment,  and  also  the  manner  in  which  the 
parts  should  be  put  together;  and  as  the  rules  are  based 
upon  results  of  actual  tests  made  by  practical  shipbuild- 
ers and  owners  all  over  the  world,  it  is  evident  that  both 
builder  and  owner  have  every  reason  to  adhere  to  them. 

The  Classification  Societies'  rules  most  generally  used 
are: 

Lloyd's  rules  and  regulations  for  the  classification  and 
construction  of  vessels.  (British.) 

American  Lloyd's    (Bureau  of  American  Shipping) 
rules  for  classification  and  construction. 

Bureau  Veritas  (French)  rules  for  construction  and 
classification. 

British  Corporation  rules. 

Though  methods  of  measuring  and  determining  neces- 
sary dimensions  of  material  to  use  are  not  alike,  some- 
what similar  results  are  obtained  by  the  four  classification 
societies'  rules  mentioned,  therefore  a  vessel  built  to  con- 
form to  a  certain  class  in  one  society  will  be  granted  a 
corresponding  classification  in  any  other  society. 

As  I  have  mentioned  classification  of  vessels  for  in- 
surance, perhaps  I  had  better  explain  its  meaning  a  little 
more  fully.  The  majority" of  seagoing  vessels  are  insured 
by  their  owners,  and  the  cargo  carried  is  also  separately 
insured  by  its  owners.  The  amount  of  "risk"  or  danger 
of  vessel  and  cargo  being  lost  or  damaged  depends  very 
largely  upon  strength  and  seaworthiness  of  vessel  and  her 
equipment,  therefore  it  is  imperative  that  people  who  in- 
sure, and  people  who  desire  to  ship  cargo,  have  some  ready 


means  for  determining  (a)  the  condition  of  the  vessel 
and  her  equipment,  and  (b)  the  proper  amount  of  risk 
involved  by  shipping  cargo.  If  a  vessel  is  sound  and  has 
proper  equipment  the  risk  is  necessarily  very  much  less 
than  if  a  vessel  is  old,  or  badly  constructed,  or  poorly 
equipped,  and  of  course  the  smaller  the  risk  of  loss  or 
damage  the  lower  the  premium  will  be  for  both  vessel  and 
cargo  carried. 

You  can  therefore  readily  understand  that  a  well- 
found,  properly  constructed  vessel  will  seldom  have  to 
wait  for  cargo.  The  means  employed  for  determining 
condition  of  a  vessel  and  for  letting  all  shippers  of  cargo 
know  her  condition  is  to  have  a  vessel  classified  by  a 
known  and  competent  authority  and  to  have  this  classi- 
fication done  while  vessel  is  being  constructed  and  at 
certain  periods  after  launching. 

The  classification  is  done  by  skilled  surveyors,  em- 
ployed by  classification  society,  who  designates  the  class 
that  vessel's  construction  and  equipment  entitles  her  to 
receive.  Under  Lloyd's  rules  a  vessel  will  be  classed 
"A"  provided  it  is  found  to  be  in  a  fit  and  efficient  condi- 
tion for  its  contemplated  employment.  If  a  vessel  is 
being  built  for  any  particular  trade,  there  will  be  affixed 
to  the  letter  the  name  of  trade,  such  as  "A"  for  coast 
service  only. 

If  vessel  is  built  properly  and  in  accordance  with  ma- 
terial and  dimension  rules,  the  number  lOO  will  be  pre- 
fixed to  the  letter,  thus:  A  lOo;  and  if  the  equipment^ 
such  as  anchor,  chains,  rigging,  etc.,  is  as  specified  in 
tables,  the  figure  (i)  is  placed  immediately  after  the  letter 
designating  class.  Thus  a  vessel  classed  as  lOO  A  i  is 
known  to  be  in  fit  condition,  to  be  built  of  materials  that 
are  proper  in  strength  and  put  together  in  a  proper  man- 
ner, and  to  have  equipment,  rigging,  etc.,  that  is  proper 
in  amount,  dimensions  and  quality.  If  a  vessel's  con- 
struction is  not  quite  up  to  the  standard  called  for  by 
rules,  the  numeral  loo  is  replaced  by  one  of  lesser  value 
(95  or  90). 

In  the  American  Lloyd's  (Bureau  of  American  Ship- 
ping) classification  the  character  assigned  to  vessels  is 
expressed  by  number  from  i  to  3,  A  i  standing  for 
highest  class  and  A  3  for  lowest.  Intermediate  numbers 
(i/4,  i^,  2,  2^)  being  assigned  to  vessels  that,  while 
not  as  good  as  A  i,  are  superior  to  A  3. 

In  general  new  wooden  ships  built  in  accordance  with 
Lloyd's  building  rules  can  obtain  classification  in  Class 
A  for  a  designated  number  of  years,  and  can  have  this 
classification  continued  on  the  termination  of  the  named 


■6'- 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


'p'eVioa  'if.i  ailei"  survey,  the  ship  is  found  to  be  in  proper 
condition  for  a  continuation  of  the  classification. 

Class  A  ships  are  entitled  to  carry  all  kinds  of  car- 
goes in  any  waters. 

Ships  that  have  passed  out  of  Class  A  and  are  not  in 
condition  to  be  continued  in  it  and  ships  not  built  in 
accordance  with  rule  are  generally  classed  in  Class  A,  in 
red. 

Ships  which  are  found  on  survey  fit  for  carrying  dry 
and  perishable  cargoes  on  short  voyages  are  classed  AE, 
and  ships  which  are  not  safe  for  carrying  perishable  car- 
goes but  perfectly  safe  for  carrying  cargoes  not  likely 
to  be  damaged  by  salt  water  are  classed  E. 

These  classification  rules  are  mentioned  because  it  is 
necessary  that  you  have  some  knowledge  of  the  under- 
lying principles  of  the  rules  for  classifying  vessels. 

To  get  a  class,  or  get  a  vessel  classified,  a  written  ap- 
plication must  be  made  to  a  properly  authorized  agent, 
or  surveyor,  of  the  classification  society,  and  the  estab- 
lished fee  paid.  It  is  usual  to  apply  for  classification 
before  work  on  a  vessel  is  commenced,  because  the  rules 
of  classification  societies  stipulate  that  their  surveyor 
shall  inspect  hull  during  construction  and  specify  the 
stages  of  construction  when  each  inspection  shall  be  made. 

Inspections  are  usually  made: 


1st. — When  keel  is  laid  and  frames  are  up. 

2d. — When  planking  is  being  wrought. 

3d. — When  planking  is  completed  and  caulked,  but  be- 
fore deck  is  laid. 

4th. — When  decks  and  ceiling  are  laid  and  vessel  is 
ready  for  launching. 

5th. — When  vessel  is  completed,  outfitted  and  ready 
for  sea. 

When  a  class  is  assigned  to  a  vessel  it  is  assigned  for 
a  certain  stated  number  of  years  and  upon  the  condition 
that  vessel  is  to  be  kept  in  good  repair  and  properly 
equipped  during  the  whole  of  named  period;  and  it  is 
also  stipulated  that  whenever  a  vessel  is  being  repaired, 
or  whenever  she  is  damaged,  a  surveyor  must  be  notified 
and  vessel  be  inspected.  In  addition  to  this  all  vessels 
must  be  submitted  for  resurvey  at  the  expiration  of  a 
named  number  of  years.  These  rules  not  only  insure  that 
a  vessel  shall  be  properly  built,  but  they  also  insure  that  all 
classified  vessels  shall  be  kept  in  good  repair  under  penalty 
of  withdrawal  of  certificate  or  lowering  of  class.  Having 
thus  briefly  explained  the  meaning  of  classification  and 
the  reason  for  classifying  vessels,  I  will  tell  you  about  the 
kinds  of  materials  used  in  ship-building  and  the  proper 
dimensions  of  materials  to  use  in  each  principal  part  of 
a  vessel's  construction. 


Chapter  II 

Information  About  Woods 


The  substance  named  ivood  is,  for  the  most  part, 
elastic,  tenacious,  durable,  and  easily  fashioned.  The 
part  that  is  characterized  as  timber  is  obtained  from 
the  body  of  trees,  or  that  part  of  those  which  grow 
with  a  thick  stem,  rising  high,  and  little  encumbered 
with  branches  or  leaves,  which  is  called  the  trunk.  The 
head  of  the  tree  consists  of  the  branches,  which  are 
adorned  with  leaves;  these  attain  their  full  development 
in  the  Summer,  and  then,  in  the  great  majority  of 
species,  fall  in  the  Autumn. 

In  ship  carpentry,  the  wood  of  the  trunk  and  largest 
branches  alone  is  used ;  and  only  that  of  the  commoner 
species   of   trees. 

Some  of  the  timber  trees  attain  an  immense  gize 
when  they  are  allowed  to  come  to  full  maturity  of 
growth.  Oaks  and  beeches  are  found  to  attain  the  height 
of  I20  feet;  the  larch,  the  pine,  the  fir  grow  to  the 
height  of  135  feet.  Other  kinds,  as  the  elm,  the  maple, 
the  walnut,  the  poplar,  and  the  cypress,  reach  sometimes 
a  great  elevation. 

Botanists  classify  trees  according  to  their  physiological 
and  structural  peculiarities;  and  in  this  way  trees  are 
divided  into  two  great  classes, — Monocotyledonous,  or 
Endogenous,  and  Dicotyledonous,  or  Exogenous  trees. 

The  terms  Monocotyledonous  and  Dicotyledonous, 
belong  to  the  Jussieuan  system  of  nomenclature,  and  are 
descriptive  of  the  organization  of  the  seeds.  Endog- 
enous and  Exogenous  are  the  terms  used  by  modern 
botanists,  and  are  descriptive  of  the  manner  of  growth 
or  development  of  the  woody  matter  of  the  tree,  which 
is,  in  the  endogens,  from  the  outside  inwards  towards 
the  interior,  and  in  the  exogens,  outwards  to  the  ex- 
terior. 

The  monocotyledonous  or  endogenous  trees  have  no 
branches :  their  stems,  nearly  cylindrical,  rise  to  a  sur- 
prising height,  and  are  crowned  by  a  vast  bunch  of 
leaves,  in  the  midst  of  which  grow  their  flowers  and 
fruits.  In  this  class  are  the  palm  trees,  growing  only 
in  tropical  climes,  where  they  are  of  paramount  import- 
ance, yielding  to  the  people  of  those  countries  meat,- 
drink,  and  raiment,  and  timber  for  the  construction  of 
their  habitations. 

The  pahn  tree  will  serve  as  a  type  of  the  endogenous 
structure.  Dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  trees,  which 
form  the  second  class,  are  in  much  greater  variety,  and 
much  more  widely  spread  over  the  globe,  than  trees  of 
the  first  class.  The  form  of  their  trunks  is  generally 
conical,  tapering  from  the  root  to  the  summit:  the  sum- 
mit or  head  of  the  tree  is  formed  by  the  prolongation  of 


the  trunk,  which  divides  into  sundry  primary  branches ; 
these  again  ramify  into  innumerable  secondary  branches; 
and  these  throw  out  small  twigs,  to  which  the  leaves 
are  attached  by  foot-stalks,  larger  or  smaller.  At  first 
sight  it  appears  as  if  the  leaves  grew  by  chance,  but  an 
order,  regular  and  constant  in  each  species,  presides  in 
their   distribution. 

On  making  a  transverse  section  of  a  dicotyledonous 
tree,  we  see  that  it  is  composed  of  three  parts,  easily 
distinguished — the  bark  which  envelops,  the  pith  which 
forms  the  core  or  center,  and  the  woody  substance  which 
lies  between  the  bark  and  the  pith. 

In  the  woody  substance  we  distinguish  two  thick- 
nesses :  the  one  wh'icJi  envelops  the  pith  is  the  greatest, 
and  is  of  a  harder  nature  than  that  which  adjoins  the 
bark.  The  former  is  termed  perfect  wood,  the  latter 
alburnum.  The  inner  layer  of  bark  next  the  alburnum 
is  called  the  liber,  a  name  given  from  its  being  used  to 
form  the  books  (libri)  of  the  ancients.  Between  the  liber 
and  the  alburnum  there  is  a  substance  partaking  of  the 
qualities  of  both,  and  called  cambium.  This  is  developed 
in  the  Spring  artd  Autumn,  when  its  internal  portion 
changes  insensibly  into  alburnum,  and  the  exterior  into 
liber.  The  liber  never  becomes  wood:  it  is  expanded 
continually  by  the  process  of  growth  in  the  tree,  and 
forms  the  bark,  which  rends  and  exfoliates  externally, 
because  of  its  drying ;  and  the  layer  of  liber,  in  growing 
old,  cannot  extend  in  proportion  to  the  augmentation  in 
[he  circumference  of  the  tree. 

Duhamel  and  Buffon  long  since  proved  that  albur- 
num, in  process  of  time,  became  perfect  wood;  and  there 
is  now  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
tree  grows  and  produces  its  wood. 

Exogens,  or  outward  growers,  are  so  called  because, 
as  long  as  they  continue  to  grow,  they  add  new  wood  to 
the  outside  of  that  formed  in  the  previous  year;  in  which 
respect  they  differ  essentially  from  endogens. 

The  only  respects  in  which  the»growth  of  exogens  cor- 
responds with  that  of  endogens  are,  that  in  both  classes 
the  woody  matter  is  connected  with  the  leaves,  and  in 
both,  a  cellular  substance  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole 
structure. 

As  new  layers  of  alburnum  are  produced,  they  form 
concentric  circles,  which  can  be  easily  seen  on  cutting 
through  the  tree;  and  by  the  number  of  these  circles  one 
can  determine  the  age  of  the  tree.  Some  authors  assert 
that  this  is  not  so,  since  a  tree  may  produce  in  one  year 
several  concentric  layers  of  alburnum,  and  in  another 
year  only  one.      Nevertheless,   the   commonly   received 


8 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


opinion  is,  that  the  number  of  concentric  circles  in  the 
cross  section  of  the  wood,  called  annual  layers,  indicates 
the  time  it  has  taken  to  reach  its  size.  Although  a  layer 
of  alburnum  is  deposited  each  year,  the  process  of  trans- 
formation of  it  into  perfect  wood,  otherwise  heart-wood, 
is  slow,  and,  consequently,  the  alburnum,  or  sap-wood, 
comprehends  many  annual  layers. 

The  annual  layers  become  more  dense  as  the  tree 
grows  aged ;  and  when  there  is  a  great  number  in  a  tree 
of  small  diameter,  the  wood  is  heavy,  and  generally  hard 
also.  In  wood  which  is  either  remarkably  hard  or  re- 
markably soft,  the  annual  layers  can  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished. They  cannot,  for  example,  be  distinguished  in 
ebony,  and  other  tropical  woods,  nor  in  the  poplar,  and 
other  soft  white  woods  of  our  climate.  In  the  case  of 
the  softer  woods  in  our  climate,  the  layers  are  frequently 
thinner  and  more  dense  on  the  Northern  side  than  on  the 
opposite.  In  a  transverse  section  of  a  box  tree,  about  7 
inches  diameter,  we  reckoned  one  hundred  and  forty 
annual  layers. 

The  roots  of  a  tree,  although  buried  in  the  soil,  have, 
as  we  have  seen,  an  organization  resembling  that  of  the 
trunk  and  branches.  The  roots  of  several  trees  are  em- 
ployed in  the  arts  and  in  ship-building,  but  as  these  are 
fully  described  in  another  chapter  I  need  not  dilate  on 
the  subject:  I  shall  only  remark,  that  as  the  branches  of 
a  tree  divide  into  smaller  branches  and  twigs,  expanding 
to  form  a  head,  so  the  roots  divide  also  into  branches, 
which  expand  in  every  direction  in  the  ground,  and  these 
branches  again  divide,  their  ultimate  division  being  into 
filaments,  commonly  called  fibres,  which  appear  to  be  to 
the  roots  what  the  leaves  are  to  the  branches. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  there  is  a  sympathy  between 
the  branches  and  the  roots  in  their  development.  Thus, 
when  several  considerable  branches  of  a  tree  are  lopped 
off,  the  corresponding  roots  suffer,  and"  often  perish. 

2a.     Cultivation  of  Trees 

Trees  are  the  produce  of  forests,  planted  sponta- 
neously, and  consequently  very  ancient,  or  of  forests  and 
plantations  created  by  man  since  he  has  engaged  in  this 
kind  of  culture. 

The  reproduction  of  trees,  their  culture,  and  the  fell- 
ing of  timber,  belong  more  to  the  management  of  forests ; 
but  I  shall  remark  briefly  on  some  qualities  which  are 
derived  from  growth. 

The  size  and  fine  growth  of  a  tree  is  not  an  infallible 
sign  of  goodness  of  quality  in  the  wood.  The  connection 
of  the  age  of  a  tree  with  its  development,  and  the  nature 
of  the  soil  in  which  it  grew,  ought  to  be  inquired  into 
to  enable  a  judgment  to  be  formed  of  the  quality  of  the 
wood. 

In  general,  boggy  or  swampy  grounds  bear  only  trees 
of  which  the  wood  is  free  and  spongy,  compared  with  the 
wood  of  trees  of  the  same  species  grown  in  good  soil  at 
greater   elevations.     The   water,    too   abundant   in   low- 


lying  argillaceous  land,  where  the  roots  are  nearly  al- 
ways drowned,  does  not  give  to  the  natural  juices  of  the 
tree  the  qualities  essential  to  the  production  of  good  wood. 
The  oak,  for  example,  raised  in  a  humid  soil,  is  more 
proper  for  the  works  of  the  cabinet-maker  than  for  those 
of  the  ship-carpenter;  because  it  is  less  strong  and  stiff, 
and  is  softer  and  more  easy  to  work  than  the  same  wood 
raised  in  a  dry  soil  and  elevated  situation :  it  is  also  less 
liable  to  cleave  and  split.  Its  strength,  compared  with 
that  raised  in  a  drier  soil,  is  about  as  4  to  5,  and  its  specific 
gravity  as  5  to  7. 

Wet  lands  are  only  proper  for  alders,  poplars,  cypress, 
and  willows.  Several  other  species  incline  to  land  which 
is  moist  or  wholly  wet;  but  the  oak,  the  chestnut,  the 
elm,  thrive  only  in  dry  situations,  where  the  soil  is  good, 
and  where  the  water  does  not  stagnate  after  rain,  but  is 
retained  only  in  sufficient  quantity  to  enable  the  ground 
to  furnish  aliment  for  the  vegetation.  Resinous  trees, 
too,  do  not  always  thrive  in  the  soils  and  situations 
proper  to  the  other  kinds  of  timber,  and  especially  in 
marshy  soils:  sandy  soils  are  in  general  the  best  for 
their  production ;  and  several  species  affect  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  sea,  such  as  the  maritime  pine,  not  less  useful 
for  its  resin  than  for  its  timber. 

In  fine,  trees  which  grow  in  poor  and  stony  soils,  and 
generally  in  all  such  soils  as  oppose  the  spreading  of 
their  roots,  and  do  not  furnish  a  supply  of  their  proper 
sap,  are  slow  and  stunted  in  their  growth,  and  produce 
wood  often  knotty  and  difficult  to  work,  and  which  is 
mostly  used  as  veneers  for  ornamenting  furniture. 

The  surest  tokens  of  good  wood  are  the  beauty,  clear- 
ness, and  firmness  of  the  bark,  and  the  small  quantity  of 
alburnum. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  timber  on  the  margin  of  a 
wood  is  larger,  more  healthy,  and  of  better  quality  than 
that  which  grows  in  the  interior,  the  effect  of  the  action 
of  the  sun  and  air  being  less  obstructed. 

2b.     Timber  for  Ship-Building 

The  qualities  which  fit  woods  for  use  by  shipbuilders 
are  durability,  uniformity  of  substance,  straightness  of 
fibre,  strength  and  elasticity.  The  good  quality  of  a 
wood  is  known  by  uniformity  and  depth  of  color  peculiar 
to  its  species.  When  color  varies  much  from  heart  to 
circumference  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  tree  from 
which  the  timber  was  cut  was  affected  by  disease. 

Knotty  and  cross-grained  wood  is  difficult  to  work 
and  should  be  rejected  especially  for  use  in  pieces  sub- 
jected to  great  strains.  The  knots  are  always  a  source  of 
weakness  because  the  straightness  of  fibres  which  gives 
strength  is  interrupted. 

Knots  are  the  prolongation  of  branches  across  the 
perfect  wood  of  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  If  the  branches 
have  grown  with  the  tree  to  the  time  it  was  cut  down  the 
knots  will  be  perfect  wood  and  the  fibres  of  the  trunk 
will  only  be  slightly  turned  from  their  straightness,  but 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


if  the  branch  forming  the  knot  ceased  to  grow  before  tree 
was  cut  down  the  knot  will  be  "dead"  and  will  not  only 
greatly  weaken  the  timber  but  may  have  caused  some  of 
the  surrounding  wood  to  decay.  In  all  woods  of  a  given 
species  the  heavier  the  specimens  are  the  stronger  and 
more  durable.  Timber  cut  from  the  butt  of  a  tree  is 
always  the  heaviest  and  strongest,  and  for  this  reason  all 
pieces  of  timber  that  have  to  be  steam  bent  should  be 
cut  from  butt  ends  of  logs. 

Among  resinous  woods  those  which  have  the  least 
resin  in  their  pores,  and  among  non-resinous  woods  those 
which  have  the  least  sap,  or  gum,  in  them  are  generally 
the  strongest  and  most  durable. 

The  tenacity  of  wood  when  strained  along  the  grain 
depends  on  the  tenacity  of  the  fibres,  and  tenacity  when 
strained  across  the  grain  depends  upon  the  adhesion  of 
the  fibres  to  each  other. 

Timber  used  for  ship-building  should  be  free  from 
cracks  radiating  from  the  center  (called  "clefts"),  from 
cracks  which  partially  separate  the  layers  (called  shakes), 
and  from  sap-wood  (the  light-colored  wood  nearest  the 
bark),  and  should  be  properly  and  thoroughly  air 
seasoned. 

2c.     Care  of  Timber 

If  timber  be  exposed  to  great  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, to  alternations  of  wetness  and  drought,  to  a  humid 
and  hot  atmosphere,  it  will  inevitably  suffer  a  deteriora- 
tion of  those  qualities  which  render  it  serviceable  for 
the  ship-carpenter. 

Timber,  when  too  suddenly  dried,  is  liable  to  split: 
when  exposed  to  too  high  a  temperature  in  a  close  at- 
mosphere, its  juices  are  liable  to  fermentation,  followed 
by  a  loss  of  tenacity  and  a  tendency  to  rot  and  become 
worm-eaten.  The  greater  the  quantity  of  timber  thus 
kept  together,  the  more  rapidly  is  it  impaired,  which  is 
made  sensible  to  the  smell  by  a  peculiar  odor  emitted 
from  it. 

When  timber  is  exposed  to  injury  from  the  weather, 
and  lying  long  exposed  on  a  damp  soil,  it  is  attacked 
by  wet  rot.  The  alternations,  too,  of  drought  and  rain, 
of  frosts  and  of  heat,  disorganize  the  woody  fibre,  which 
breaks,  and  a  species  of  rottenness  ensues  resembling 
the  decay  of  growing  timber.  The  means  of  defending 
the  timber  from  these  various  causes  of  waste,  and  pre- 
serving it  in  a  state  fit  and  proper  to  be  used  in  construc- 
tion, we  now  propose  to  describe. 

When  the  timber  is  squared  and  cut  up,  care  must 
be  bestowed  on'  it ;  not  alone  on  the  ground  that  it  is 
then  so  much  the  more  valuable  by  the  labor  which  it 
has  cost,  but  because,  by  its  being  divided,  it  is  more 
easily  affected  by  deteriorating  causes ;  and  by  its  sur- 
face being  augmented,  these  causes  have  also  a  larger 
field  to  operate  on. 

Timber  of  the  same  scantling  should  be  piled  together ; 
and  there  should  not  be  mingled  in  one  pile  wood  of 
different  species. 


The  first  layer  of  the  pile  should  be  elevated  above 
the  soil  on  sleepers,  the  higher  the  better,  as  securing 
a  freer  circulation  of  air,  and  preventing  the  growth  of 
fungi.  The  most  perfect  security,  however,  is  obtained 
by  paving  the  site  of  the  pile,  and  building  dwarf  walls 
or  piers,  with  strong  girders,  to  form  the  foundation 
for  the  first  tier. 

Where  the  space  will  admit  of  it,  and  the  timbers 
are  square,  they  should  be  laid  in  tiers  crossing  each 
other  alternately  at  right  angles,  and  at  least  their  own 
width  apart.  This  method  will  not  do  for  thin  planks, 
because  it  would  not  allow  a  sufficient  circulation  of  air. 
These  are  better  when  piled  so  that  in  the  alternate  tiers 
there  are  only  planks  sufficient  to  keep  the  other  tiers 
from  bending.  Where  space  can  be  afforded,  it  is  well 
to  pile  square  timber  in  this  way.  The  diagram  (Fig.  i) 
will  best  explain  this  mode. 

After  timber  is  erected  as  part  of  a  ship  it  will 
rapidly  deteriorate  unless  protected  against  the  causes  of 


Fig.  1 

decay,  which  are  principally:  (a)  imperfect  seasoning, 
(b)  improper  ventilation  and  presence  of  impure  air  in 
holds  of  a  ship,  (c)  changes  in  temperature  and  presence 
of  moisture  in  holds  and  around  joints  of  the  ship's  struc- 
ture, (d)  dirt  in  holds  and  around  the  framing. 

In  the  present  day  very  little  shipbuilding  timber  is 
properly  seasoned  and  for  this  reason  it  is  expedient  to 
close  up  ever}'  rend,  shake,  and  opening,  and  the  surfaces 
of  joints  that  cannot  be  reached  after  the  pieces  are  as- 
sembled, with  some  substance  that  will  act  as  a  preserva- 
tive by  resisting  the  action  of  water  and  prevent  moisture 
getting  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  The  ventilation  of 
holds  and  circulation  of  air  around  the  timbers  of  the 
frame  should  be  properly  planned  because  it  is  in  the  hold 
of  a  ship,  more  than  in  any  other  part,  that  decay  starts; 
here  the  greatest  degree  of  moisture  collects  and  the 
greatest  amount  of  impure  air  accumulates,  especially  if 
holds  are  not  properly  cleaned  when  a  cargo  is  removed, 
or  if  through  some  damage  to  ceiling  of  a  hold  dirt  or 
decaying   refuse   from   cargo   is   allowed  to   accumulate 


lO 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


around  the  frames  and  in  places  where  it  cannot  be  readily 
removed  from. 

Timbers  that  are  found  to  be  decayed  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  extremities  of  a  ship,  and  in  which  the  de- 
cay proceeds  from  the  center,  will  usually  be  found  upon 
examination  to  have  some  surface  defect,  such  as  a  shake 
or  fissure,  through  which  air  and  moisture  have  been  ad- 
mitted to  the'  heart,  and  in  the  case  of  joints  that  have 
decayed  it  will  generally  be  found  that  air  and  moisture 
has  had  access  to  the  center  of  joint  through  some  defect 
or  opening  in  joint. 

Without  air  and  moisture  decay  in  timber  cannot 
begin.  Decay  in  timber  is  a  fungus  that  requires  air  to 
stimulate  its  growth,  as  can  be  easily  proved  by  admitting 
moist  air  to  the  heart  of  timbers  that  are  apparently  sound. 
With  the  admission  of  air  and  moisture  the  growth  of 
fungus  of  decay  is  almost  immediately  started. 

2d.     Of  the  Bending  of  Timber 

Curved  forms  require  that  the  ship-carpenter  should 
obtain  the  timber  naturally  curved,  or  should  possess 
the  power  of  bending  it.  Trees  which  yield  timber 
naturally  curved  are  generally  used  for  the  construc- 
tions of  the  naval  architect.  If,  where  curved  timber 
is  required,  it  should  be  attempted  to  be  formed  by 
hewing  it  out  of  straight  timber,  two  evils  would  ensue: 
the  first,  a  loss  of  wood;  the  second,  and  greater,  the 
destruction  of  its  strength  by  the  necessary  cross-cutting 
of  its  fibres.  Hence,  to  maintain  the  fibres  parallel  among 
themselves,  and  to  the  curve,  recourse  is  had  to  curving 
or  bending  the  timber  artificially.  This  process  may  be 
performed  on  the  timber  after  it  is  squared  or  cut  up. 

The  process  of  bending  timber  artificially  is  founded 
on  the  property  which  water  and  heat  have  of  penetrat- 
ing into  the  woody  substance,  rendering  it  supple  and 
soft,  and  fitting  it  to  receive  forms  which  it  retains  after 
cooling. 

Bending  timber  is  effected  in  the  five  following 
ways: 

1.  By  using  the  heat  of  a  naked  fire. 

2.  By  the  softening  influence  of  boiling  water. 

3.  By  softening  it  by  vapor. 

4.  By  softening  it  in  heated  sand. 

5.  By  vapor  under  high  pressure. 

The  first  method  of  operation  is  only  applicable  to 
timbers  of  small  scantling. 

In  the  second  method,  the  timber  is  immersed  in 
water,  which  is  heated  until  it  boils,  and  is  kept  boiling 
until  the  timber  is  wholly  saturated  and  softened.  The 
timber  being  then  withdrawn,  is  immediately  forced  to 
assume  the  required  curvature,  and  is  secured  by  nails 
or  bolts.  This  proceeding  has  the  defect  of  weakening 
the  timber,  and  lessening  its  durability.  It  should,  there- 
fore, be  used  only  in  such  cases  as  do  not  require  the 
qualities  of  strength  and  durability. 


In  the  third  process,  the  timber  is  submitted  to  the 
action  of  the  steam  of  boiling  water.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  inclosed  in  a  box  made  perfectly  air-tight.  The  box 
has  a  series  of  grated  horizontal  partitions  or  shelves  on 
which  the  timbers  are  laid.  From  a  steam  boiler  con- 
veniently situated,  a  pipe  is  carried  to  the  box.  The 
steam  acts  on  the  timber,  and  in  time  softens  it  and 
renders  it  pliant.  The  time  allowed  for  the  action  of 
the  steam  to  produce  this  effect  is  generally  one  hour  for 
every  inch  of  thickness  in  the  planks. 

The  fourth  method  of  preparing  the  wood  for  bend- 
ing, is  by  applying  heat  and  moisture  to  it  through  the 
medium  of  the  sand  bath.  The  apparatus  for  this  pur- 
pose is  a  furnace  with  flues,  traversing  the  stone  on 
which  the  sand  is  laid,  in  the  manner  of  hothouse  flues. 
There  is  also  provided  a  boiler  in  which  water  is  heated. 
On  the  stone  a  couch  of  sand  is  laid:  in  this  the  tim- 
bers are  immersed,  being  set  edgeways  on  a  bed  of 
sand  about  6  inches  thick,  and  having  a  layer  of  sand 
of  the  same  thickness  separating  them,  and  being  also 
covered  over  with  sand.  The  fire  is  then  lighted  in  the 
furnace,  and  after  a  time,  the  sand  is  thoroughly  mois- 
tened with  boiling  water  from  the  boiler  before  men- 
tioned. This  watering  is  kept  up  all  the  time  that  the 
timber  is  in  the  stove.  Thin  planks  require,  as  in  the 
preceding  case,  an  hour  for  each  inch  of  thickness ;  but 
for  thick  scantlings  the  time  requires  to  be  increased; 
for  instance,  a  6-inch  timber  should  remain  in  the  stove 
eight-  hours. 

The  fifth  mode,  by  means  of  high-pressure  steam,  only 
differs  from  the  third  process  described  in  this,  that  the 
apparatus  requires  to  be  more  perfect.  The  box,  there- 
fore, is  generally  made  of  cast-iron,  and  all  its  parts  are 


Fig.  2 

strengthened  to  resist  the  pressure  to  be  employed. 
When  the  steam  has  a  pressure  of  several  atmospheres, 
the  softening  of  the  wood  is  very  rapid;  and  it  is  very 
effectually  done  by  this  method. 

After  the  timber  is  properly  softened  and  rendered 
pliable,  it  is  bent  on  a  mould  having  a  contour  of  the 
form  which  the  timber  is  required  to  assume. 

The  simplest  method  of  doing  this  is  shown  in  out- 
line in  Fig.  2.  A  series  of  stout  posts,  a  a  a,  are  driven 
into  the  ground,  on  a  line  representing  the  desired  curve. 
The  piece  of  wood  m  n,  when  softened,  is  inserted 
between  two  posts  at  the  point  where  the  curvature  is 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


II 


to  begin,  as  at  a  b,  and  by  means  of  a  tackle,  applied 
near  that  point,  it  is  brought  up  to  the  next  post,  a,  where 
it  is  fixed  by  driving  a  picket,  c,  on  the  opposite  side. 
The  tackle  is  shifted  successively  from  point  to  point; 
and  the  pickets,  c,  d,  e,  are  driven  in  as  the  timber  is 
brought  up  to  the  posts.  It  is  left  in  this  condition 
until  it  is  cold  and  dried ;  and  then  it  is  removed  to  make 
way  for  another  piece.  But  if  the  balk  is  required  to  be 
more  accurately  bent,  and  out  of  winding  in  its  breadth, 
squared  sleepers,  a  a  a  (Fig.  3,  Nos.  i  and  2),  are  laid 
truly  level  across  the  line  of  curvature,  and  the  posts 
b  b  are  also  accurately  squared  on  the  side  next  the  balk. 


Fig.  3 

An  iron  strap  c,  which  is  made  to  slide  freely,  is  used 
for  attaching  the  tackle,  and  as  the  balk  is  brought  up 
to  the  curve,  it  is  secured  to  the  posts  b,  b  by  two  iron 
straps,  e'e,  e  e  (seen  better  in  the  vertical  section, 
No.  2),  which  embrace  the  pieces  /,  on  the  opposite 
side,  and  are  wedged  up  tight  by  the  wedges  h  h. 

In  operating  in  either  of  the  ways  described,  only 
one  piece  of  timber  can  be  bent  at  a  time.  By  the  follow- 
ing method  several  pieces  may  be  bent  together: 

Fig.  4  is  a  vertical  projection,  and  a  transverse  ver- 
tical section,  of  the  apparatus.  It  consists  of  the  hori- 
zontal pieces  a  a,  arranged  with  their  upper  surface  in 
the  contour  of  the  curve.  They  are  sustained  by  strong 
framing  b  b,  c  c,  d  d.  The  timber  is  laid  with  its  center 
on  the  middlq  of  the  frame,  and  by  means  of  purchases 
applied  at  both  sides  of  the  center,  and  carried  succes- 
sively along  to  different  points  towards  each  end,  it  is 
cufved,  and  secured  by  iron  straps  and  wedges  as  before. 
The  frame  may  be  made  wide  enough  to  serve  for  the 
bending  of  other  pieces,  as  m,  n;  or  for  a  greater  num- 
ber, by  increasing  the  length  of  the  pieces  a  a,  and  sup- 
porting them'  properly. 


t:^ 


Fig.   4 


These  methods  are  not  quite  perfect ;  for  in  place  of 
the  timber  assuming  a  regular  curvature,  it  will  obviously 
be  rather  a  portion  of  a  polygonal  contour.     To  insure 


perfect  regularity  in  the  curve,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
a  continuous  template,  in  place  of  the  several  pieces 
a  a  a  a. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  curvature  given  to  the 
timber  is  such  as  will  not  too  greatly  extend,  and,  per- 
haps, rupture  the  fibres  of  the  convex  side,  and  so 
render  it  useless. 


rifi^SS^-Sl^- 


Fig.   5 

The  process  of  bending  timber  which  we  have 
described,  is,  as  will  be  seen,  restricted  to  very  narrow 
limits.  The  effect,  when  the  curve  is  small,  is  to  cripple 
the  fibres  of  the  inner  circumference,  and  to  extend 
those  of  the  exterior,  and  the  result  is,  of  course,  a 
weakening  of  the  timber.  Bending,  effected  by  end 
pressure,  is  not  only  not  attended  with  injurious  effects, 
but  on  the  contrary,  gives  to  the  timber  qualities  which 
it  did  not  before  possess. 


y]Epiaj  SB© 


Fig.    6 


Wood  can  be  more  easily  compressed  than  expanded ; 
therefore,  it  is  plain  that  a  process  which  induces  a 
greater  closeness  in  the  component  parts  of  the  piece 
under  operation — which,  as  it  were,  locks  up  the  whole 
mass  by  knitting  the  fibres  together — must  augment  the 
degree  of  hardness  and  power  of  resistance. 

Another  of  the  good  results  of  this  method  is,  that 
the  wood  is  seasoned  by  the  same  process  as  affects  the 


12 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


bending.  The  seasoning  of  wood  is  simply  the  drying 
qf  the  juices  and  the  reduction  of  the  mass  to  the  mini- 
mum size  before  it  is  employed,  so  that  there  should  be 
no  future  warping.     But,  as  the  compression  resorted  to 


^^ 


Fig.  7 

in  the  system'  at  once  expels  the  sap,  a  few  hours  are  suffi- 
cient to  convert  green  timber  into  thoroughly  seasoned 
wood. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  form  of  the  machine  for  timbers 
under  6  inches  square.  Figs.  6  and  7  show  the  machine 
for  heavy  timbers  above  that  scantling. 

The  principle,  as  has  been  stated,  is  the  application 
of  end  pressure;  but  another  characteristic  feature  is, 
that  the  timber,  during  the  process,  is  stibjected  to  pres- 
sure on  all  sides,  by  which  its  fibres  are  prevented  from 
bursting  or  from  being  crippled ;  and,  in  short,  the  tim- 
ber is  prevented  from  altering  its  form  in  any  other 
than  the  desired  manner.  The  set 
imparted  to  it  becomes  permanent 
after  a  few  hours,  during  which 
time  it  is  kept  to  its  form  by  an 
enveloping  band  and  a  holding 
bolt,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


2e. 


Fig.   8 

Seasoning  of  Timber,  and  the  Means  Employed 
TO  Increase  Its  Durability 


Seasoning  timber  consists  in  expelling,  or  drying  up 
as  far  as  possible,  the  moisture  (sap)  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  pores.  Air,  or  natural,  seasoning  is  best 
and  consists  in  simply  exposing  the  timber  freely  to  air  in 
a  dry  place  sheltered  from  sunshine  and  rain.  Air  sea- 
soning of  hard  wood  cannot  be  completed  in  less  than 
two  years.  To  immerse  the  logs  in  water  for  a  few 
weeks  before  they  are  sawed  into  plank  will  hasten  the 
seasoning  because  the  water  expels  the  sap. 

Timber  can  be  artificially  seasoned  by  placing  it  in 
a  tight  chamber,  called  a  dry  kiln,  and  exposing  it  to  a 
current  of  hot  air  which  is  forced  into  the  compartment 
by  fans.  The  temperature  of  the  air  should  vary  with 
kind  of  wood: 


For  oak  it  should  not  exceed  lOS* 

For  hard  woods  in  general,  in  thick  planks,  about  lOo' 

For  pine  woods  in  thick  pieces,  about   i8o° 

For  pine  timbers     200° 

For  mahogany    , 260° 

The  current  of  air  being  freely  circulated  around 
the  planks,  which  should  be  piled,  with  spaces  between 
them,  for  not  over  12  hours  a  day. 

The  drying  should  be  gradual;  for  if  the  moisture  be 
carried  off  too  rapidly  the  fibres  of  the  wood  will  collapse 
or  lose  their  power  of  adhering  to  one  another  and  the 
timber  will  split  along  the  grain.  One  reason  why  kiln- 
dried  timber  is  not  advocated  for  use  in  ships  is  the  ten- 
dency of  kiln-dried  timber  to  imbibe  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere  and  thus  induce  decay. 

An  attempt  to  fix  a  time  for  air  seasoning  timber 
would  be  utterly  useless  because  time  required  to  season 
timber  will  vary  with  kind  and  quality,  and  also  with 
conditions  of  climate,  piling,  etc. 

In  general  it  can  be  said  that  timber  for  ship-building 
should  not  be  used  sooner  than  three  years  after  felling. 
If  timber  is  squared,  cut  to  scantling,  and  placed  in  a 
situation  where  air  can  pass  freely  over  each  piece, 
pieces  6  inches  square  will  season  sufiiciently  to  be  usable 
in  six  months;  pieces  12  inches  square  will  require  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  months ;  and  pieces  over  12  inches  square 
will  require  from  tzventy  to  twenty-four  months.  But 
this  period  of  seasoning  will  not  thoroughly  dry  the  tim- 
ber; it  will  only  put  it  into  condition  to  be  used  for  parts 
that  do  not  require  thoroughly  air-dried  timber. 

Timber  in  seasoning  loses  from  6  to  40%  in  weight, 
and  from  2  to  8%  in  transverse  measurement  (through 
shrinkage). 

Immersion  in  hot  water  effects  the  same  purpose 
much  more  rapidly;  but  as  the  wood  has  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  the  water  for  ten  or  twelve  days, 
the  expense  is  prohibitory  of  the  process,  unless  in  cases 
where  the  condensing  water  of  a  steam  engine  in  con- 
stant operation  can  be  made  available.  As  we  have  be- 
fore remarked,  when  speaking  of  the  bending  of  timber, 
the  action  of  the  hot  water  impairs  its  strength,  and 
should  not  be  used  where  strength  is  an  object. 

Immersion  in  salt  water  is  a  means  of  adding  to  the 
durability  of  timber.  It  increases  its  weight,  and  adds 
greatly  to  its  hardness.  It  is  attended,  however,  by  the 
grave  inconvenience  of  increasing  its  capacity  for  mois- 
ture, which  renders  this  kind  of  seasoning  inapplicable 
for  timber  to  be  employed  in  the  ordinary  practice  of  the 
carpenter. 

The  water  seasoning  of  which  we  have  been  speaking 
has  many  objectors;  but  numerous  experiments  prove, 
beyond  contradiction,  that  timber  immersed  in  water 
immediately  after  being  felled  and  squared,  is  less  sub- 
ject to  cleave  and  to  decay,  and  that  it  dries  more  quickly 
and  more  completely ;  which  proves  that  the  water 
evaporates  more  readily  than  the  sap,  of  which  it  has 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


13 


taken  the  place.  The  immersion,  however,  impairs,  to 
some  extent,  the  strength  of  the  timber;  and  this  consid- 
eration indicates  the  applicability  or  non-applicability 
of  the  process.  When  the  timber  is  required  for  pur- 
poses for  which  dryness  and  easiness  of  working  are 
essential,  then  the  water  seasoning  may  be  employed  with 
advantage;  but  when  for  purposes  in  which  strength 
alone  is  the  great  requisite,  it  should  not  be  used. 

2f.     Loss  OF  Weight  and  Shrinkage  of  Timber  in 
Seasoning 

While  seasoning  timber  will  lose  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  its  original  (green)  weight  and  it  will  also  shrink 
in  width  and  in  thickness.  The  amount  of  loss  of  weight 
and  dimensions  in  seasoning  varies  considerably,  being 
much  greater  in  some  kinds  of  timber  than  in  others.  On 
the  accompanying  Table  i  (page  17)  I  give  figures  ob- 
tained by  carefully  weighing  and  measuring  a  number  of 
experimental  pieces  of  timber.  The  figures  are  for  thor- 
ough seasoning  during  a  period  of  over  three  years.  You 
will  note  that  there  is  some  variation  in  shrinkage  be- 
tween butt  and  top  planks  of  same  timber. 

Among  the  insects  whose  attacks  are  most  fatally  in- 
jurious to  the  wood  are  the  white  ant,  the  Teredo 
navalis,  a  kind  of  Pholas,  and  the  Limnoria  terebrans. 

The  white  ant  devours  the  heart  of  the  timber,  re- 
ducing it  to  powder,  while  the  surface  remains  unbroken, 
and  affords  ho  indication  of  the  ravages  beneath. 

The  teredo  and  pholas  attack  wood  when  submerged 
in  the  sea.  The  teredo,  its  head  armed  with  a  casque  or 
shell  in  the  shape  of  an  auger,  insinuates  itself  into  the 
wood  through  an  almost  imperceptible  hole;  it  then  in 
its  boring  operations  follows  the  line  of  the  fibre  of  the 
wood,  the  hole  enlarging  as  the  worm  increases  in  size. 
It  forms  thus  a  tube,  extending  from  the  lowest  part  of 
the  timber  to  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  which 
it  lines  with  a  calcareous  secretion.  A  piece  of  timber, 
such  as  a  pile  in  a  marine  structure,  may  be  perforated 
from  the  ground  to  the  water  level  by  a  multitude  of 
these  creatures,  and  yet  no  indications  of  their  destruc- 
tive work  appear  on  the  exterior. 

The  pholas  does  not  attack  timber  so  frequently  as  the 
teredo;  and  its  ravages  are  more  slowly  carried  on.  Its 
presence  in  the  wood,  therefore,  though  very  dangerous, 
is  not  so  pernicious  as  the  other. 

For  the  protection  of  timber  from  disease,  decay,  and 
the  ravages  of '  insects,  various  means  are  employed. 
These  may  be  classed  as  internal  and  external  applications. 

I.  Preservation  of  Wood  by  impregnating  it  with 
Chemical  Solutions. 

The  chemicals  usually  employed  in  solution  are  the 
deutochloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate),  the 
protoxide  of  iron,  the  chloride  of  zinc,  the  pyrolignite 
of  iron,  arsenic,  muriate  of  lime,  and  creosote.  They 
are  either  used  as  baths,  in  which  the  timber  is  steeped, 


or  they  are  injected  into  the  wood  by  mechanical  means; 
or  the  air  is  exhausted  from  the  cells  of  the  wood,  and  the 
solutions  being  then  admitted,  fill  completely  every 
vacuum. 

All  of  these  processes  are  advantageous  under  certain 
circumstances ;  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  any  of  them  is 
infallible. 

But  it  is  to  be  feared  that  against  the  attacks  of  the 
marine  pests — the  teredo,  the  pholas,  and  the  Limnoria 
terebrans— the  protection  these  processes  afford  is  at  the 
best  doubtful.  An  exception  to  this  may  probably  be 
taken  in  favor  of  the  creosote  process.  The  soluble 
salts  are  supposed  to  act  as  preservatives  of  the  timber, 
by  coagulating  its  albumen;  thus  the  very  quality  of  com- 
bining with  the  albumen  destroys  the  activity  of  the  salts 
as  poisons,  and  hence  although  preservatives  against 
decay,  they  may,  when  thus  combined,  be  eaten  by  an 
insect  with  impunity.  With  creosote,  however,  the  case 
is  different.  It  fills  the  vessels  of  the  wood,  and  its 
smell  is  so  nauseous  that  no  animal  or  insect  can  bear  it. 
It  is  also  insoluble  in  water,  and  cannot  be  washed  out. 
It  is  thus  a  protection  to  the  wood  against  the  ravages 
of  insects,  and  also  a  preservative  from  decay.  The 
base  of  many  of  the  marine  preservative  and,  so-called, 
anti-fouling  bottom  paints  is  creosote. 

Previous  to  the  application  of  any  of  these  substances, 
however,  and  as  a  preparative  for  it,  it  is  essential  that 
the  timber  be  thoroughly  deprived  of  its  moisture. 

II.  Preservation  by  Paints  and  other  Surface  Appli- 
cations. 

Timber,  when  wrought,  and  either  before  it  is  framed, 
or  when  in  its  place,  is  coated  with  various  preparations, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  prevent  the  access  of  humidity 
to  its  pores.  In  the  application  of  such  surface  coatings, 
it  is  essential  that  the  timber  be  thoroughly  dry ;  for  if  it 
is  not,  the  coating,  in  place  of  preserving  it,  will  hasten 
its  destruction,  as  any  moisture  contained  in  it  will  be 
prevented  from  being  evaporated,  and  will  engender  in- 
ternal decay.  This  result  will  be  more  speedily  developed 
as  the  color  of  the  coating  is  more  or  less  absorbent  of 
heat. 

One  of  the  most  common  applications  to  timber  con- 
structions of  large  size  is  a  mixture  of  tar,  pitch,  and 
tallow.  The  mixture  is  made  in  a  pot  over  a  fire,  and 
applied  boiling  hot. 

But  the  most  universally  applicable  protective  coating 
is  good  oil  paint.  It  is  necessary  that  the  oil  should  be 
good,  the  paint  insoluble  in  water,  and  thoroughly  ground 
with  the  oil,  and  that  in  its  application  it  should  be  well 
brushed  with  the  end,  and  not  with  the  side  of  the 
brush.  Such  a  coating  has  not  the  disadvantage  of 
weight,  like  the  painting  with  sand;  nor  does  it,  like  it, 
alter  the  form  of  the  object  to  which  it  is  applied. 

The  timber  to  be  painted  in  oil  should  be  planed 
smooth ;  and  it  is  essentially  requisite  that  it  be  dry.  It 
is  usual  to  submit  it  to  the  action  of  the  air  for  some 


14 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


time  before  painting,  and  then  to  take  advantage  of  a 
dry  season  to  apply  the  paint. 

To  render  eflfectual  any  of  the  surface  coatings  we 
have  mentioned,  it  is  necessary  to  take  care  that  the 
joints  of  framing  are  also  coated  before  the  wrork  is  put 
together.  If  this  be  neglected,  it  will  happen  that 
although  any  water  which  may  fall  on  the  work  will 
evaporate  from  the  surface,  some  small  portions  may 
insinuate  themselves  into  the  joints,  and  these  remain- 
ing, will  be  absorbed  by  the  pores  of  the  wood,  and 
become  the  cause  of  rot.  The  joints  of  all  exposed  work 
should,  therefore,  be  well  coated  with  the  protective 
covering  before  it  is  put  together. 

Besides  these  fluid  compositions,  timber  exposed  to 
the  action  of  marine  insects  is  often  covered  with  a 
sheathing  of  metal,  usually  copper. 

I  will  now  give  a  brief  description  of  each  kind  of 
wood  used  by  shipbuilders  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  the  average 
weights  of  each,  and  the  strength  compared  with  that 
of  oak. 

2g.    Description  of  Woods — Hard  Woods 

Oak. — The  oak  is  one  of  the  strongest  and  most 
durable  of  shipbuilding  woods  that  grow  in  the  U.  S.  A., 
but  all  of  the  oaks  are  not  equally  durable  and  valuable. 

The  most  durable  and  valuable  of  the  oaks  is  the 
live  oak.  This  is  a  fine-grained,  compact  and  heavy 
wood  obtained  from  trees  that  only  grow  near  the  sea- 
coast  of  some  of  the  Southern  States.  The  trees  are 
rarely  found  more  than  15  miles  from  the  coast  and  are 
most  abundant  along  the  shores  of  creeks  and  bays.  It 
is  the  most  durable  and  strongest  of  the  oaks  that  grow 
in  the  U.  S.  A.,  but  is  difficult  to  procure  in  large  quan- 
tities because  the  trees  seldom  attain  large  dimensions 
and  are  never  found  in  forests. 

Next  in  value  to  the  live  oak  is  the  white  oak.  This 
is  a  light-colored,  hard  and  durable  species  x>f  oak  that 
grows  in  great  abundance  in  the  Eastern  half  of  the 
U.  S.  A.  The  wood  is  very  durable  both  in  and  out  of 
water  and  possesses  great  strength.  Experiments  on 
samples  of  white  oak  gave  these  results: 

Specific  gravity,  about .934 

Weight  of  cubic  feet  in  tb  (nearly  dry)   58.37 

Comparative  strength,  or  weight  necessary  to  bend  . .. .  •   149. 

Comparative  strength    350. 

Cohesive  force  per  square  inch   ib  13,316. 

Comparative   toughness    108. 

Red  oaks  and  other  varieties  of  common  oaks,  of 
which  there  are  several,  are  less  durable  and  do  not 
possess  the  strength  of  white  oak  and  for  these  reasons 
should  not  be  used  when  white  oak  can  be  obtained. 
For  interior  finish  the  red  oak  is  preferable  to  the  white 
because  it  is  a  softer  wood  and  has  a  much  finer  grain, 
or  figure,  when  quarter-sawed. 

Chestnut  is   a   soft   coarse-grained  wood,   somewhat 


similar  in  color  to  white  oak.  It  is  found  in  the  Eastern 
part  of  the  U.  S.  A.,  and  while  not  nearly  as  strong 
as  oak  its  lasting  qualities  are  excellent.  For  this  reason 
a  certain  percentage  of  chestnut  can  be  used  in  the 
frames  of  vessels  without  loss  of  class.  The  average 
cohesive  force  of  chestnut  is  about  9,700. 

Its  stiffness  to  that  of  oak  is  as  54  to  100. 
Its  strength  to  that  of  oak  is  as  48  to  100. 
Its  toughness  to  that  of  oak  is  as  85  to  100. 

Rock  Elm. — The  elm  is  a  large  tree,  common  in  the 
U.  S.  A.  There  are  about  fifteen  species,  of  which  the 
rock  elm  is  the  most  valuable  for  ship-building.  Its 
wood  is  ruddy  brown,  very  fibrous  and  flexible,  subject 
to  warp,  tough,  and  difficult  to  work.  It  is  not  liable  to 
split  and  bears  the  driving  of  nails  or  bolts  better  than 
any  other  wood.  When  kept  constantly  wet  it  is  exceed- 
ingly durable,  and  is,  therefore,  much  used  for  keels  of 
vessels  and  in  wet  places. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  when  green  is  about  60  tb 
and  when  dry  about  43  ft. 

Its  strength  to  that  of  white  oak  is  as  82  to  100. 
Its  stiffness  to  that  of  white  oak  is  as  78  to  100. 
Its  toiighness  to  that  of  white  oak  is  as  86  to  100. 
Its  absolute  cohesive  strength  is  about  13,000  tb. 

Soft  elm  is  the  worst  of  all  the  species  and  is  abso- 
lutely useless  for  shipbuilding  use. 

Ash  is  an  excellent  wood  for  oars,  blocks,  hand- 
spikes, etc.,  because  its  toughness  and  elasticity  fit  it  for 
resisting  sudden  and  heavy  shocks.  It  is  of  little  use  for 
other  shipbuilding  purposes  because  of  its  liability  to  rot 
when  exposed  to  dampness  or  used  in  places  where  it 
will  be  alternately  wet  and  dry. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  green  ash  is  about  60  ft 
and  of  dry  wood  about  49  ft.  Its  cohesive  strength  is 
about  17,000  ft. 

Its  strength  to  that  of  white  oak  is  as  119  to  100. 
Its  stiffness  to  that  of  white  oak  is  as  89  to  100. 
Its  toughness  to  that  of  vvhite  oak  is  as  100  to  100. 

Teak. — While  not  a  native  U.  S.  wood,  teak  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  ship-building  and  is,  in  fact,  one  of,  if 
not  the  most  valuable  of  all  shipbuilding  woods.  It  is 
a  native  wood  of  India,  and  is  one  of  the  few  woods  that 
can  withstand  the  ravages  of  white  ants.  The  wood  is 
light  brown  in  color,  is  durable  both  in  and  out  of  water, 
and  possesses  very  nearly  the  strength  of  white  oak. 
Its  tenacity  is  about  13,000  ft  per  square  inch. 

Teak  is  largely  used  for  deck  plank  in  yachts,  for 
rails,  for  joinerwork,  and  in  places  where  great  durability 
is  desired. 

In  countries  where  it  is  plentiful  it  is  used  for  keels, 
frames,  and  planking  of  vessels,  and  when  so  used  the 
vessels  are  practically  indestructible  through  decay. 

There  are  two  descriptions  of  teak  used  in  ship-build- 
ing; one  of  which  is  brought  from  Moulmein  and  the 
other  from  Malabar.     The  former  of  these  is  in  various 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


15 


respects  superior  to  the  latter ;  in  India,  where  the  oppor- 
tunities of  comparing  them  have  been  more  ample  than  in 
this  country,  it  is  stated  to  be  of  less  specific  gravity,  of 
greater  flexibility,  and  freer  from  knots  and  rindgalls 
than  the  teak  of  Malabar;  it  is  also  of  a  lighter  color. 
It  grows  to  an  immense  size  in  the  forest,  and  trees  are 
sometimes  cut  of  8  or  9  feet  in  diameter;  but  most  of 
such  trees  are  unsound;  smaller  trees  are  therefore  pre- 
ferred, ranging  down  to  18  inches  in  diameter.  The 
largest  pieces  of  this  teak  run  to  about  85  feet  in  length, 
and  are  about  8  or  9  feet  in  girt;  keel-pieces  range  from 
38  to  50  feet  in  length,  squaring  from  15  to  24  inches. 

This  timber  is  killed  before  it  is  felled:  the  trees  are 
girdled  all  round  through  the  sap  about  3  feet  above  the 
ground,  just  before  the  rainy  season  begins,  and  when  the 
sap  is  low.  The  vitality  of  the  trees  being  thus  destroyed, 
they  are  left  in  that  state  to  season,  for  two  or  even  three 
years  before  they  are  felled.  The  trees  are  considered 
to  arrive  at  perfection  in  about  seventy  years;  a  trans- 
verse section  of  some  trees  exhibits  the  periodical  rings 
of  the  stem  at  half  an  inch  or  even  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  asunder,  while  in  other  specimens  of  the  same  tim- 
ber these  rings  can  hardly  be  distinguished.  Some  butts 
are  of  a  close  and  even  texture;  and  the  same  feature  of 
the  wood  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  log  though  it 
be  60  feet :  other  butts  are  soft  for  several  inches  round 
the  heart. 

Maple. — Maple  is  a  hard,  heavy,  strong  and  close- 
grained  wood  of  light  color.  The  hard  maple  is  exten- 
sively used  for  launching  ways  and  for  planking  of 
slipways.  The  wood  is  durable  when  fully  covered  with 
water  but  is  not  very  durable  when  alternately  wet  and 
dry.  When  green  it  weighs  about  62  tb,  and  when  dry 
about  51  lb.    Its  tenacity,  is  about  10,586  It). 

Locust. — The  timber  of  the  acacia  is  called  locust 
wood.  In  color  it  is  yellow.  It  is  an  extremely  durable 
wood  of  great  strength.  Experiments  have  shown  that 
it  is  heavier,  harder,  stronger  and  more  rigid  than  the 
best  white  oak.  Its  use,  however,  is  almost  entirely 
confined  to  treenails,  because  the  trees  from  which  the 
timber  is  cut  are  always  very  small,  and  for  this  reason 
locust  is  seldom  used  except  for  pieces  that  can  be  made 
out  of  small  timbers.  For  treenails  it  is  far  superior  to 
all  other  woods. 

Its  strength  compared  with  oak  is  as  135  to  100. 

Its  weight  is  about  45  tb  a  cu.  ft.  and  its  tenacity  is  tb  16,000. 
Locust  wood  shrinks  very  little  indeed  in  seasoning. 

Birch. — There  are  two  kinds  of  birch  used  in  ship 
construction,  the  black  and  the  yellow.  The  black  is 
the  most  durable  and  is  the  one  preferred  by  shipbuilders. 
It  is  moderately  hard  wood,  weighs  when  green  about 
60  lb,  and  when  dry  about  45  tb.  Its  tenacity  is  15,000  lb 
a  square  inch.  The  yellow  birch  is  not  a  very  durable 
wood. 

Mahogany. — This  wood  is  extensively  used  for  ship 


joinerwork  and  planking  of  small  boats.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America.  The  mahogany 
tree  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  majestic  of  trees. 
Its  trunk  is  often  50  feet  high,  and  12  feet  diameter.  It 
takes  probably  not  less  than  two  hundred  years  to  arrive 
at  maturity.  . 

The  mahogany  tree  abounds  themost  and  is  in  great- 
est perfection  between  latitudes  11°  and  23°  10'  N., 
including  within  these  limits  the  islands  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  Cuba,  St.  Domingo,  and  Porto  Rico,  and  in  these 
the  timber  is  superior  in  quality  to  that  of  the  adjacent 
continent  of  America,  owing,  it  is  to  be  supposed,  in  some 
measure,  to  its  growing  at  greater  elevations  and  on 
poorer  soils.. 

Mahogany  timber  was  used  at  an  early  period  by  the 
Spaniards  in  ship-building.  In  1597  it  was  used  in  the 
repairs  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  ships  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  finest  mahogany  is  obtained  from  St.  Domingo, 
the  next  in  quality  from  Cuba,  and  the  next  from  Hon- 
duras. 

In  the  island  of  Cuba  the  tree  is  felled  at  the  wane 
of  the  moon  from  October  to  June.  The  trunks  are 
dragged  by  oxen  to  the  river,  and  then,  tied  together  in 
threes,  they  are  floated  down  to  the  rapids.  At  the 
rapids  they  are  separated  and  passed  singly,  then,  col- 
lected in  rafts,  they  are  floated  down  to  the  wharves  for 
shipment.  It  is  considered  essential  to  the  preservation 
of  the  color  and  texture  of  the  wood  that  it  should  be 
felled  when  the  moon  is  in  the  wane. 

The  Honduras  mahogany  is  commonly  called  bay 
wood,  and  is.  that  most  used  for  the  purposes  of  car- 
pentry. It  recommends  itself  for  these  purposes  by  its 
possessing,  in  an  eminent  degree,  most  of  the  good  and 
few  of  the  bad  qualities  of  other  timber.  It  works 
freely;  it  does  not  shrink;  it  is  free  from  acids  which  act 
on  metals;  it  is  nearly  if  not  altogether  exempt  from 
dry  rot;  and  it  resists  changes  of  temperature  without 
alteration.  It  holds  glue  well;  and  it  does  not  require 
paint  to  disguise  its  appearance.  It  is  less  combustible 
than  most  woods.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  is  50  tb, 
and  its  tenacity  is  given  by  Barlow  at  8,000  tb. 

Its  strength  compared  with  oak  is  as  96  to  100. 
Its  stiffness  compared  with  oak  is  as  93  to  100. 
Its  toughness  compared  with  oak  is  as  99  to  100. 

Sabicu. — The  wood  of  a  beautiful  tree  which  grows 
in  Cuba.  It  is  used  in  the  government  yards  for  beams 
and  planking.  The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  is  from  57  to 
65  tb. 

Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiosi). — This  wood  is  a 
native  of  Guiana,  where  it  is  in  great  abundance.  The 
trees  square  from  18  to  24  inches,  and  can  be  procured 
from  60  to  70  feet  long.  It  is  a  fine  but  not  even-grained 
wood.  Its  heart-wood  is  deep  brown  in  color,  and  the 
alburnum  pale  yellow.  It  is  adapted  for  all  purposes 
where  great  strength  and  durability  are  required.     The 


i6 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


weight  of  a  cubic  foot  is  from  51.15  to  61.13,  and  its 
specific  gravity  from  831  to  989. 

Poplar  (Populus). — The  wood  of  the  poplar  is  soft, 
light,  and  generally  white,  or  of  a  pale  yellow.  It  has 
the  property  of  being  only  indented  and  not  splintered 
by  a  blow. 

It  is  adapted  for  purposes  which  require  lightness 
and  moderate  strength,  and  when  kept  dry  it  is  tolerably 
durable.  It  weighs  when  green  48  ft  3  oz.  per  cubic 
foot,  and  from  24  to  28  ft  7  oz.  when  dry.  It  shrinks 
and  cracks  in  drying,  and  loses  about  a  quarter  of  its 
bulk.  When  seasoned  it  does  not  warp,  and  takes  fire 
with  difficulty.     Its  tenacity  is  6,016. 

2h.     Resinous  and  Soff  Woods 

Of  the  timber  of  the  resin-producing  trees,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Coniferae,  many  varieties  are  used. 
The  white  pine  of  America,  which  is  the  Pinus  Strobus; 
the  yellow  pine  of  America,  Finns  variabilis;  the  pitch 
pine,  Pinus  resinosa;  the  silver  fir,  Pinus  Picea;  and  the 
various  white  firs,  or  deals,  the  produce  of  the  Pinus 
Abies,  or  spruce  fir;  and  also  the  larch,  are  all  used  in 
almost  every  kind  of  construction. 

No  other  kind  of  tree  produces  timber  at  once  so 
long  and  straight,  so  light,  and  yet  so  strong  and  stiff; 
and  no  other  timber  is  so  much  in  demand  for  all 
purposes. 

From  the  growing  trees  are  obtained  turpentine,  liquid 
balsam,  and  the  common  yellow  and  black  rosin.  Tar 
is  obtained  by  cutting  the  wood  and  roots  into  small 
pieces,  and  charring  them,  or  distilling  them  in  a  close 
oven,  or  in  a  heap  covered  with  turf.  The  lampblack 
of  commerce  is  the  soot  collected  during  this  process. 
Fortunately,  the  trees  of  the  pine  and  fir  tribe,  so  useful 
to  man,  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  America  and 
Europe. 

White  or  Northern  Pine. — This  wood  grows  in  the 
Northern  States  of  the  U.  S.  A.  and  in  Canada.  It  is 
a  light,  soft,  straight-grained  wood  of  a  light  yellowish 
color,  and  is  one  of  the  most  reliable  of  woods  for  stay- 
ing in  place  after  it  is  fastened,  because  it  does  not 
warp.  It  is  extensively  used  for  patterns,  for  deck  plank, 
for  joinerwork  that  will  be  painted,  and  for  planking  of 
small  craft  of  all  types. 

Its  strength  to  that  of  oak  is  as  90  to  190. 
Its  stiffness  to  that  of  oak  is  as  95  to  100. 
Its  toughness  to  that  of  oak  is  as  103  to  100. 

Its  weight  when  green   is  about 36  tb. 

Its  weight    when    dry   about 28  tb. 

Georgia  Pine. — Also  known  as  pitch  pine,  as  yellow 
pine,  and  as  "longleaf  pine",  is  a  strong,  close-grained, 
durable  wood  extensively  used  in  ship-building.  This 
pine  grows  in  Southern  States  from  Virginia  to  Texas, 
and  can  be  obtained  in  lengths  up  to  at  least  60  feet 
and  dimensions  up  to  about  14  by  14  inches.  Yellow 
pine  is  largely  used  for  planking,  for  decking,  for  a  large 


portion  of  the   longitudinal   framework,    for  keels   and 
keelsons  and  for  spars. 

Its  strength  as  compared  with  that  of  oak  is  as  90  to  100. 
Its  toughness  as  compared  with  that  of  oak  is  as  96  to  100. 

Its  weight  when  green   is   about    56  lb. 

Its  weight  when  dry    about 45  tb. 

Spruce. — There  are  four  kinds  of  spruce  in  U.  S.  A., 
of  which  only  two  are  suitable  for  shipbuilding  use,  viz., 
the  black  and  the  white  spruce.  These  are  tough,  light 
woods  that  are  fairly  durable  when  used  in  wet  and 
damp  places.  For  this  reason  it  is  used  for  floors,  for 
keelsons  and  for  longitudinal  members  of  vessels'  frame- 
work. Its  strength  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  white 
pine.  Bear  in  mind  that  it  is  the  color  of  the  bark  and  not 
the  wood  that  gives  the  name  to  each  kind.  The  woods 
cannot  be  distinguished  after  bark  is  removed. 

Oregon  Pine. — This  is  a  species  of  pine  that  grows 
on  the  Western  Coast;  its  texture  is  somewhat  like  that 
of  the  Eastern  white  pine  but  the  wood  is  slightly  harder 
and  contains  more  rosin.  The  wood  is  extensively  used 
for  shipbuilding  purposes  and  rates  next  to  yellow  pine 
for  durability  and  strength.  It  is  an  excellent  wood  for 
masts  and  spars.  Oregon  pine  can  be  obtained  in  lengths 
of  100  feet  and  over,  and  some  of  the  timbers  of  this 
length  are  almost  clear  of  knots.  Oregon  pine  is  also 
called  Douglas  fir. 

White  Cedar. — -This  is  a  soft,  white,  fine-grained 
wood  in  great  demand  for  planking  small  boats  and  yachts. 
The  wood  is  a  native  of  Virginia,  where  it  grows  in 
swampy  land.  Species  of  white  cedar  are  also  found  in 
Canada,  in  Michigan,  in  New  Jersey  and  in  Florida.  The 
wood  is  exceedingly  durable,  is  tough  and  is  extremely 
light  in  weight,  some  of  the  Canadian  cedars  weighing 
only  15  ft  per  cubic  foot.  The  weight  of  an  average 
Virginian  white  cedar  log  is  about  20  ft  per  cubic  foot. 

Red  Cypress. — This  is  anotlier  Southern  wood  in 
great  demand  for  small  boat  and  yacht  construction 
work.  Its  color  is  reddish  yellow  and  the  wood  is  one 
of  the  most  durable  of  woods,  either  in  or  out  of  water. 

Cypress  has,  however,  this  defect:  it  soaks  up  water 
very  readily,  and  for  this  reason  it  must  be  kept  well 
covered  with  paint  or  varnish.  The  wood  is  soft  and 
bends  readily. 

As  cypress  trees  grow  to  heights  of  over  100  feet, 
the  wood  can  be  obtained  in  long  lengths  and  almost  free 
from  knots  and  defects.  The  red  cypress  is  the  name 
given  to  the  dark-colored  wood  cut  from  trees  that  grow 
near  the  coast — the  lowland  cypress.  The  upland  light- 
colored  cypress  is  worthless  for  boatbuilding  purposes 
and  is  not  at  all  durable.  In  color  the  lowland  cypress 
is  yellowish  and  for  this  reason  it  is  called  yellow  cypress. 

The  most  valuable  woods  in  the  U.  S.  A.  for  ship- 
building purposes  are  teak,  live  oak,  white  oak,  common 
oak,  chestnut,  elm,  hackmatack,  yellow  pine,  spruce, 
Douglas  fir  or  Oregon  pine,  red  cypress,  white  cedar, 
Washington  cedar,  and  white  pine. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


17 


Lignum  Vita. — This  is  one  of  the  hardest  and 
heaviest  species  of  wood ;,  and  owing  to  its  valuable  pecu- 
liarities it  is  applied  to  uses  in  which  the  greatest  strain 
has  to  be  borne,  and  chiefly  for  the  sheaves  of  blocks 
and  lining  of  shaft  bearings.  In  this  use  it  endures  a  vast 
amount  of  friction,  and  bears  the  strain  of  enormous 
weights.  When  the  wood  is  used  for  sheaves,  care  should 
be  taken  so  to  cut  it  that  a  band  of  the  sap  may  be  pre- 
served all  round;  as  this  preserves  the  sheaves  from 
splitting  from  the  outside  inwardly  towards  the  center, 
which  they  would  do  if  they  consisted  of  the  perfectly 
elaborated  wood  alone. 

As  the  sap  of  this  wood  is  so  important,  care  should  be 


taken  to  preserve  it  from  the  depredations  of  worms ;  and 
also  to  protect  the  wood  generally  from  too  much  draught, 
especially  when  it  is  newly  cut. 

The  Havana  Cedar  {Cedrela  odorata)  belongs  to  the 
same  natural  order  as  mahogany,  which  it  resembles, 
although  it  is  much  softer  and  of  a  paler  color.  It  is  im- 
ported from  the  island  of  Cuba,  and  is  much  used  both  in 
cabinet  work  and  in  boat-building. 

The  New  South  Wales  Cedar  {Cedrela  toona)  some- 
what resembles  the  Havana  cedar,  but  is  of  a  coarser 
grain  and  of  a  darker  color.  It  grows  in  the  East  Indies 
as  well  as  in  New  South  Wales.  Most  of  the  cedars  are 
used  in  boat-building. 


TABLE   I 
TABLE  OF  TRANSVERSE  SHRINKAGE  AND  LOSS  OF  WEIGHT   IN  SEASONING  TIMBER 


Kind  of  Timber 


12-Inch  Boards  Shrunk  to  These  Widths  in 
Seasoning 


Butt  Plank 


Top  Plank 


Weights  of  Cubic  Foot  of  Timber 


Green  State 


When  Seasoned 


White  oak 

Common  oak... 
Common  oak . . . 
Canadian  oak. . 

Larch 

Hackmatack  . . 
Ehn,  American. 
Ehn,  Canadian. 

Fir 

Fir,  Douglas. . . 
Pine,  white.  .  .  . 
Pine,  long  leaf. . 

Pine,  yellow 

Cedar,  white. . . 

Ash 

Spruce,  Eastern 
Cypress,  red. . . 


"•75 
11.60 
11.50 
11.60 

ii-SS 
11.60 

11.70 

"■55 
11.80 
1 1. go 
11.80 
"•95 
II.7S 
11.40 

II-SS 
11.85 
11.50 


60 
SO 
35 
45 
40 

50 
45 
30 
70 
80 
65 
85 
65 
30 
45 
75 
30 


58—64 
56 
54 
57—60 

37—40 

43 

60 

56 
46 

43 
36 
56 
5° 
32 
56 
40 

38 


53—58 

47 

42 

54 

32—35 
36—38 
46 

42 

36 

34 
28 

42—45 

39 

28 

44—46 
29—31 
27 — 29 


i8 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


TABLE   2 
TABLE  OF  THE  PROPERTIES  OF  TIMBER 


I. 

2. 

3- 

4- 

$• 

6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 

Tredgold's 
Formula: 

Barlow's 
Formula: 

Specific 

Gravity, 

Water 

being 

I.O 

Weight 

of  a  foot, 

Dry, 

in  lbs. 

Weight 
of  a  Bar, 
I  ft.  long, 
I  in.  sq., 

in  lbs. 

Absolute 
Tenacity 
of  a  sq.  in. 
Average, 
in  lbs. 

Tenacity 

of  a  sq. in 

without 

injury, 

in  lbs. 

Modulus 

of  Elasticity. 

in  lbs. 

Modulus 

of  Elasticity, 

in  feet 

Crushing 

force  per 

sq. inch, 

in  lbs. 

Constants 

for 

Posts,  and 

value  of 

e 

10. 

n. 

12. 

13^ 

Value  of 
a 

Value  of 
C 

Value  of 

S 

Value  of 
E 

Acacia . .    .  ^.    

.710 
.690 

•845 
.760 
.822 
.690 
to  .854 

.792 
.648 

.960 
1.029 

■450 

.560 
.657 

•76s 
•441 
■69s 

.671 

.748 

■753 

44^37 

43^12 

53^8i 

47^5 

51^37 

43  • 

53^37 

49^5 

40.5 

60. 

64.31 

28. 

47.06 

41.06 

47.81 

27.60 

43^43 
42. 
46.75 
47.06 

.30 

18,290 

1,152,000 

373.900 

.621 

•677 

.1867 
•2036 

8,683 
9.363. 
7,158 
7,733 
9,363 
6,402 
11,663 

.00168 


.0105 

Ash 1 

.33 
.35 

17,200 

3.540 

1,644,800 
1,640,000 

4,970,000 

•244 

Bay  tree 

12,396 

Beech | 

Birch 

•315 
■34 

.28 
.41 
.446 

•32 
.285 

•33 

•30 
-236 

14,720 
15,000 
11,663 
19,891 

2,360 

1,353,600 

4,600,000 
5,406,000 
3,388,000 

•00195 

.0127 
.0141 

■552 
•643 
■605 

•1556 
.1881 
.1834 

•19s 
.240 
.256 

"       American  . 

:::if::: 

i",  2  57, 600 

Box 

Bullet  tree 

2,601,600 
700,000 
650,000 

1,000,000 

5,878,000 

.882 

.2646 

10,293 

9,000 

11,900 

:.;::::: 

S.674 
4,912 

"       red 

Chestnut                         .    . 

.0187 

Crab  tree 

(  7,148 

\  6,499 
6,000 

/  9,973 
I  8,467 

I 

10,331/ 
5,7481 
6.819] 

Cypress. 

6,000 
10,230 

13.489 
11,549 
12,776 

1.500 

900,000 

Elder                            .... 

Ehn 1 

Fir,  Riga 

3.240 


1,340,000 
699,840 

1,328,800 
869,600 

5,680,000 

.00184 

.00152 

.017 
.00115 

■372 
•369 

•  HIS 
.1108 

.101 

4,080,000 

.167 

"     Red 

"     Douglas 

.560 

•76 

•590 

1.022 
.522 
.560 

1.22 
.760 
.800 
.560 
•793 
.830 
•934 

.872 

•756 
.972 
.661 

.660 

.607 

.461 
.612 
.698 
•S44 
.419 
.640 

.786 

•383 

•590 

•340 

•470 

.69 

•657 

.671 

•390 

.807 

35^ 

47^5 

37.00 

63.87 

32.62 

35- 

76.25 

47^5° 

SO. 

35^ 

49  •S6 

58^37 

54  •SO 

47^24 
60.7s 

4i^3i 

41^25 

41.06 

28.81 
38.40 
43.62 
34.00 
26.23 
40. 

49.06 

23^93 

36.87 
21.25 

29.37 

43.1 

41.06 

41^93 
24^37 
50.43 

•30 
•32 

•44 

•243 

•S3 
•32 
•34 
■243 

■36 

■378 

■327 

■42 
.283 

.283 

.26 
.20 

".28"' 
•338 

.164 

•25 

.147 

.20 

.296 

.282 

.288 

.167 

•347 

12,000 
20,240 
14,000 
23,400 
10,220 
8,900 
11,800 
23-500 
16,500 
^8,950 
10,584 

13.316 

10,253 
12,780 

2,797,000 

.02^^ 

•380 

.1144 

■94 

Hornbeam 

7,289 

Hackmatack  

3,000 

1,200,000 

Lance •. . . . 

Larch | 

2,065 

10,740,000 
1,052,800 

4,415,000 

5,5681 
( 

.0019 

.0128 

.284 

•853 

.120 

Lignum-vitae 

Lime  tree 

Mahogany,  Spanish 

8,198 

.00205 
.00161 

■0137 
.0109 
.0197 

.0124 

.OOQ 

"           Honduras 

3,800 

1,596,300 

6,570,000 

Maple 

Oak,  white | 

"      Canadian 

3.960 

1,700,000 
1,451,220 

2,148,800 

1,191,200 
2,282,300 

4,730,000 

1  4,684 
-i  9.509 
I  10,058 
/  4.231 
I  9,509 
7,731 

[■0015 

I 

•553 

■588 
.560 

.1658 

.1766 
•1457 

.210 

5,674,000 

3,607,000 
5,583,000 

.310 
.149 

"      common 

/ 

.0087 

"     African 

Pear  tree ... 

9,861 
7,818 

10,000 

7,000 
16,000 
20,000 
13,800 

8,000 
11,700 

II.3SI 

6,016 

,  7,518 

/  6,790! 

l  S.44SJ 

/  S,375\ 

I  7,518/ 

5.445 

5.445 

9,000 

7,000 

2,500 

.021^ 

Pine,  Pitch . 

2,900 

1,225,600 

1,840,000 

1,000,000 
1,200,000 
1,700,000 
1,400,000 
700,000 

4,364,000 

6,423,000 
8,700,000 

.0166 

•544 
•447 

.1632 
•1341 

.177 
.272 

"      Red .  . 

.0100 

"      American  white 

.0112 

"      (N.C.)  yellow 

"      (long  leaf)  yellow 

"       (Oregon) 

.0110 

"     Red  wood 

Plane  tree 

.0128 

Plum  tree 

10,493 

9,367 

3,657  we 

J  3,107) 
I  5,124/ 

t. 

Poplar 

.0224 
.0089 

Soruce   Orecon 

1,536,200 

6,268,000 

•577 

•1731 

.190 

' '         Norway 

17,600 
14,000 
13,000 
12,460 

8,465 

14,000 

8,000 

7.293 

.00142 

**         white 

1,200,000 

.0124 

Svcamore 

.0168 

Teak 

2,414,400 

7,417,000 

12,101 
7,227 
6,128 

.00118 

.0076 
.020 

.820 

.2462 

•349 

Walnut 

Willow 

•03 1 

Yew,  Spanish 

Chapter  III 

Kinds  and  Dimensions  of  Material  to  Use 


The  relative  value  of  each  wood  for  shipbuilding  pur- 
poses has  been  carefully  considered  and  classified  by 
the  vessel  insurance  companies  for  durability  and  strength. 
This  classification  is  in  the  form  of  years  of  service  as- 
signed to  each  wood  when  utilized  for  each  principal 
part  of  a  vessel's  construction,  for  you  must  bear  in  mind 
that  while  one  wood  may  give  excellent  service  when 
used  for  planking,  it  may  not  be  at  all  suitable  for  the 
framework. 

Below  I  give  a  table  of  years  of  service  assigned  by 
insurance  companies  to  each  wood  when  it  is  used  for 
designated  parts  of  a  vessel. 

This  table  must  be  used  in  conjunction  with  one  that 
designates  the  dimensions  of  materials  to  use;  because 
sometimes,  by  increasing  dimensions  of  a  less  valuable 
wood  the  years  of  that  wood  for  a  designated  part  will 
be  increased. 

3a.     Explanation  of  Table  3 

Table  3  gives  years  assigned  to  different  kinds  of  tim- 
ber, when  used  in  the  construction  of  a  vessel  built  under 
Lloyd's  rules  for  classification  of  wooden  vessels. 


3b.    Dimensions  of  Materials  to  Use 

The  specifications  of  both  Lloyd's  and  the  Bureau  of 
American  Shipping  construction  rules  cover  workman- 
ship, as  well  as  quality  and  dimensions  of  timbers  and 
fastenings. 

Tonnage  is  the  base  used  for  determining  all  scant- 
lings of  hull,  the  tonnage  for  Lloyd's  being,  in  flush  deck 
vessels  having  one,  two  or  three  decks,  the  tonnage  under 
upper  deck,  without  abatement  for  space  used  by  crew 
or  for  propelling  power;  and  in  vessels  having  raised 
quarter  deck,  or  top-gallant  forecastle,  or  deck  houses, 
the  total  tonnage  below  the  tonnage  deck. 

In  Bureau  of  American  Shipping  the  tonnage  for 
scantlings  is  determined  by  using  this  formula : 

L  X  B  X  D  X  .75 

^  Tonnage. 

100 
L  =r  Length  from  after  part  of  stem  to  fore  side  of 
stern  post. 

B  =  Breadth  over  all  at  widest  part. 

D  =  Depth  from  top  of  ceiling  alongside  keelson  to 


TABLE  3 
LLOYD'S  TABLE  OF  YEARS  ASSIGNED  TO  EACH  KIND  OF  WOOD 


e 

h 

55 

1" 
< 

11 
1 

J 

Timbers 

1 
1 

T3 

a' 

'a 
i4 

Ceiling 

§ 

m 

4J 

c 

1 

Plank 

Deck 

s 

Kind  of  Timber 

II 

0   M 

■OK 

it 

1 

E 

d 

1 

1 
0 

■s 

1 

0 

s 

0 

1 

cJ3 

be 
.S 

i 

2 

I    East  India  Teak                .    .    . 

16 

12 
10 

8 

16 
12 
10 

7 

■  7 
9 

8 

9 
9 

4 

16 

12 
10 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 
4 

16 
12 
10 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 

4 

16 

12 

10 

8 

8 

9 
8 

9 
9 
8 
8 

7 
6 

7 
8 

7 

16 

12 
10 

'  8 

8 

9 
8 

9 
9 
6 

"6 
6 
6 
8 
6 

16 
12 
10 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 

5 

6 
6 

8 

16 

12 

10 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 

5 

6 
6 

"8 

4 

Tfi 

16 
12 
10 

7 

8 

9 
8 

9 
9 

5 

7 
6 

"s 

4 

16 

12 
10 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 

5 

16 

12 

12 

7 

8 

10 

8 

9 
9 

16 
12 
12 

7 

8 

10 

8 

9 
9 

16 
12 
12 

7 

8 

10 
8 

9 
9 

16 
12 
12 

7 

8 

10 
8 

9 
9 

16 

12 
12 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 

5 

16 

12 

12 

7 

7 
9 
7 

9 
9 

5 

16 
12 
12 

7 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 
5 

16 
12 
12 

16 

12 
12 

16 
12 
10 

16 

12 
10 

7 

7 

10 

8 

10 
9 

16 
12 
10 

7 

7 
10 

8 

10 
9 

16 

12 
10 

7 

7 

10 

8 

10 
9 

16 
12 
10 

7 

7 

10 

8 

10 
9 

16 
12 
10 

7 

8 
9 
9 

9 
6 

S 

t6 

2.  English,  African  and  Live  Oak 

Greenheart,  iron  bark 

3.  Sabien,   Jarrah,   Kurrie,    Blue 

Gum,  Red  Gum,  Pencil  Cedar 

4.  Second    Hand    English,    Oak 

Greenheart  . . . . : 

I 
I 

2 
3 

7 

12 
10 

7 

5.  Red  Cedar,  Philippine  Island 
Cedar 

7 
9 
8 

9 
9 

S 

6 
6 

';8 

12 

12 
12 

12 

9 
10 

8 
12 
12 
10 

8 
12 

6 

12 
10 
12 

12 

9 
10 

8 
12 
12 
10 

8 
12 

6 

8 

10 

8 

10 
9 

5 
6 

7 
6 
6 
8 
6 
5 

8 

6.  Danish  Oak,  Mahogany  (hard). 

7 .  North  American  White  Oak. . . 

8.  Pitch  Pine,  Oregon  Pine,  Kau- 

ria  Pine,  Larch, Hackmatack, 

9 
8 

9 
9 

9 
9 

9 
6 

5 

9.  Danzie,  French,  Red  Pine 

I J .  Rock  Maple 

10 
10 

5 

S 

5 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6; 

6 
6 

6 
6 

7 
6 

'  8 

4 

6 
6 

"s 

4 

7 
6 

"8 

4 

7 

7 

13.  Grey  Elm 

14.  Black  Birch 

10 
8 

6 

6 

15.  Spruce,  Fir 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

16.  Beech '. 

6 

6 

17.  Yellow  Pine. 

8 

4 

4 

4 

S 

5 

5 

5 

20 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


underside  of  main  deck,  to  be  measured  at  fore  end  of 
main  hatchway. 

In  both  rules  the  scanthngs  as  hsted  are  correct  for 
use  in  vessels  that  are  properly  designed,  have  normal 
shape,  and  have  not  over  a  certain  named  proportion  of 
length  to  breadth  and  of  length  to  depth.  In  cases  when 
proportion  of  length  to  breadth  is  in  excess,  or  when  the 
proportion  of  depth  to  length  is  below  requirements,  some 
addition  to  structural  strength  is  required,  this  additional 
strength  being  obtained  partly  by  the  use  of  diagonal  steel 
straps  and  partly  by  increasing  scantlings. 

In  all  cases,  workmanship  must  be  first  class  and  the 
kinds  of  materials  used  must  not  have  a  lower  rating  for 
durability  and  strength  than  those  named  in  list.  The 
number,  kind  and  size  of  fastening  must  also  be  as  listed 
in  rules.  In  cases  when  a  weaker  or  less  durable  kind  of 
material  is  used  for  a  part  some  addition  to  dimension  of 
part  must  be  made.  Below  I  give  a  brief  synopsis  of 
building  rules  and  scantling  tables. 

3c.  Lloyd's  Rules  and  Dimension  of  Material  Tables 

The  number  of  years  assigned  to  a  new  vessel  is  de- 
termined with  reference  to  construction  and  quality  of 
vessel,  the  materials  employed  and  mode  of  building. 

Defects  in  workmanship  or  quality  of  timber  will  in- 
volve a  reduction  in  class. 


Ships  built  with  mixed  timber  materials  below  the  14- 
year  grade,  and  in  which  high  class  materials  and  extra 
fastenings  have  been  judiciously  employed  may  be  allowed 
a  period,  not  to  exceed  two  years,  exceeding  that  to 
which  the  material  of  the  lowest  class  used  would  other- 
wise entitle  them,  providing  workmanship  is  high  class 
thoroughout. 

All  timber  must  be  of  good  quality,  properly  seasoned, 
and  of  the  descriptions  and  scantlings  shown  on  tables. 

Should  the  timber  and  space  (spacing  of  frames)  be 
increased,  the  siding  of  timbers  must  be  increased  in 
proportion. 

In  ships  claiming  to  stand  for  twelve  or  fourteen  years, 
timber  materials  must  be  entirely  free  from  sap  and  all 
defects. 

If  a  ship  is  properly  salted  during  her  construction, 
one  year  will  be  added  to  her  term  for  classification. 

Workmanship  is  to  be  well  executed  for  all  grades; 
(a)  timbers  to  be  frame  bolted  together  throughout  their 
entire  length;  (b)  the  butts  to  be  close  fitted;  (c)  scarphs 
are  to  be  of  proper  length. 

In  all  ships  air  courses  must  be  left,  either  immediately 
below  or  one  strake  below  the  clamps  of  each  tier  of 
beams,  and  one  or  two  air  courses  must  be  left  in  hold, 
between  the  keelson  and  hold  beam  clamps. 

All  ships  of  600  tons  and  up,  the  frames  of  which  are 


TABLE  3B— LLOYD'S  SCANTLING  TABLE 
Minimum  Dimensions  in  Inches,  of  Timbers,  Keelson,  Keel,  Planking,  Etc. 


TONNAGE 


300 


400 


600 


700 


800 


1050 


1150 


1250 


1350 


ISOO 


I7S0 


Timber  and  Space — -Inches 

Floors,  S  &  M  at  Keelson,  if  Squared 
Double  Floors,  S  &  M  at  Keelson,  if 

Squared 

1st  Futtocks,  S  &  M  at  Floorheads,  if 

Squared 

2nd  Futtocks,  Sided,  if  Squared. . .  . 
3rd  Futtocks,  Sided,  if  Squared  .... 
Top  Timbers  (Short),  Sided,  if  Squared 
Top  Timbers,  Moulded  at  Heads,  if 

Squared 

Breast    Hooks    and    Wing    Transom, 

S&M  in  Middle 

Keel,    Stem,    Apron,    and    Sternpost, 

S&M 

Keelson  ,S&M 

Wales 

(e)  Bottom  Plank,  from  Keel  to  Wales 

Sheer  Strakes,  Top  Sides,  Upper  Deck 

Clamp    (No    Shelf);    Lower    Deck, 

Clamp  with  Shelf 

Ceiling  Below  Hold  Beam  Clamp.  . . 
Waterway: 

Hardwood 

Fir 

Ceiling  Betwixt  Decks 

Bilge  Plank,  Inside,  Thick  Strakes  and 

Limber  Strake , 

Lower   Deck   Clamp    (No   Shelf)   and 

Spirketting 

Upper  Deck  Clamp  (With  Shelf) 

Planksheer 

Flat  of  Upper  Deck 

Scarphs  of  Keelson  Without  Rider .... 
Scarphs,  where  Rider  Keelson  is  added, 

also  Scarphs  of  Keel 

Main  Piece  of  Windlass — Inches 


19 

6 

5K 


4K 

8K 


10 


4 


3 

2K 

2X 
2K 

4'9' 

4'3'' 
14 


21>i 

8K 

7K 

7 


24M 
loX 

9% 

8K 

8 

7X 


9% 

4X 

2K 


3X 

2'A 


5K 

12K 
4^ 
3X 


3H 

2H 


5         5K 

2  2% 


3H 

3X 
2K 

2H 

3 
5'3" 

^Y 
15 


3K 

2H 

3H 
3 
5'io 

5'2" 
15 


27K 

10 

9 

8>i 


12 

13 
14 

aH 

3K 


3H 

2% 

6 

7 

2K 

4>i 

4 

2% 
3K' 
3 

e'e" 
16 


30 
13 


II 

10 

9 

9 

6 

13 

14 

15 

5 

4 


4 
3 

6K 
8 

2>i 

4>^ 

A\i 
3 

4 

6' 
17 


30>^ 

13X 

12^' 

wYl 
10>i 

9^4 
9% 

13X 

14X 

5 
4 


4 

8 
2>4 

\y^ 

4K 
3K 

7' 

6' 


31K 
13K 

12K 

\\% 

9K 
9>^ 

f>y, 

I3K 

4 


4K 
3% 

7 

8K 

2K 

4K 

4K 
3% 


6' 
19 


31K 

12K 

I2>< 
IlX 
10% 

9A 

f>yA, 
13K 
14K 

SA 
4X 


4X 
3K 

7 

8>^ 

2^ 

4K 

4K 
3K 
4 

3K 
7'3' 

6'3' 
21 


32  K 
14 

13 

I2>^ 

iiK 

I0>^ 

9H 


14 

15 
16 

iA 
4X 


VA 
3A 

lA 

9 

2H 


5 

3A 

4 


22 


33X 
WA 

13A 

13X 
12X 
iiK 
10 

7A 

hA 

15A 
16A 

6 

VA 


aA 

3H 

7A 
9 

2A 

5A 
5K 

3^ 
4 
4 
7'6" 

b'b" 
23 


33A 
14K 

13K 

nA 
12A 
iiA 
loA 

lA 

14K 

16K 
6 

4K 


AA 
3H 

lA 

9 

3 

5H 

5A 

3A 

4 

4 
fg" 

6'9" 

23 


33A 
15 

14 

I3K 

123A 

11^ 
loA 

1A 

15 

16 

17 

6 

aA 


aH 

4 

8 

9A 

3 


bA 

4 

4 

4 

7'9" 

6'9' 
24 


33K 
15X 

14X 

14K 

12A 

ioA 

SA 

15A 

16A 

17A 

6A 

aA 


9A 
.3 

6A 

5A 
A 
A 
A 


r 

24 


34 

15A 

iaA 

HA 

nA 
12A 
loK 

^A 

15A 

16A 

17A 

6A 

aA 


5A 

AA 

8A 
9A 
3A 

6A 

5A 

aA 
aA 

4 
8' 

7' 
25 


3AA 
15A 

HA 

hA 
uA 
12A 
II 

SH 
15K 

16K 

17H 

6A 

aA 


hA 
aA 

8A 
9A 

3A 
6A 
5A 

aA 
aA 

4 


7' 

25 


35 
15K 

iaH 

13A 
12A 
iiA 


16 

17 
18 

7 
5 


SA 

aA 
9 

10 

3A 


7 
27 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING  21 

composed  of  fir,  and  all  ships  the  length  of  which  shall  ber,  not  of  less  diameter  than  given  for  through  butt 

exceed  five  times  the  extreme  breadth,  or  eight  times  bolts.     The  number  of  straps  to  be  in  the  proportion  of 

and  under  nine  times  their  depth,  shall  have  diagonal  not  less  than  one  pair  for  every  12  feet  of  ship's  length, 

steel   straps   inserted   outside  the   frame,   the  straps  to  In  vessels  exceeding  six  breadths,  or  nine  and  under 

extend  from  upper  side  of  upper  tier  of  beams  to  first  ten  depths  in  length,  the  number  of  diagonal  straps  must 

futtock  head.  be  not  less  than  one  pair  to  every  .10  feet  of  the  ship's 

The   dimensions   of   straps   to   be   not    less   than   as  length.     And  in  addition  to  the  requirements  for  ships  of 

follows:  five  times  their  breadth  in  length,  such  ships  must  be 

In  ships  from  100  to     200  tons 3j4"  X  Vie"  fitted  with  rider  keelson,  or  with  a  pair  of  sister  keelsons 

200  to     400     "    4"       X  Yi"  properly  fastened  with  through  bolts. 

400  to     700     "    ..-;..4j4"  X   Yi  Spacing  of  deck  and  hold  beams  is  regulated  by  depth 

Table  3a            700  to  1000     "    5"       X  Y^"  of  hold,  and  ships  having  extreme  depth  must  be  fitted 

1000  to  1500     "    5J/2"  X   ^Vie"  with  riders,  or  with  orlop  deck  beams  properly  secured. 

1500  to  2000     "    6"       X   %"  Methods  of  fastening,  dimensions  of  fastenings,  and 

2000  and  above     614"  X   J^"  in  fact  particulars  of  every  important  detail  of  construc- 

Straps  to  be  placed  diagonally  at  not  less  than  45  degrees  tion  are  fully  explained  in  the  building  rules,  and  in  my 

and  to  be  fastened  with  bolts,  one  at  each  alternate  tim-  description  of  each  part  of  a  vessel's  construction. 

TABLE  3C— LLOYD'S  PLANKING  TABLE 

For  the  Thickness  of  Inside  Plank,  and  in  the  Construction  of  Ships  in  the  British  North  American  Colonies 

and  All  Fir  Ships  Wherever  Built 


TONNAGE— Tons 

100 

200 

300 

400 

Soo 

600 

700 

goo 

900 

lOSO 

I  ISO 

1350 

Thick  Waterway — Inches. 

5X 

6 

6>^ 

7K 

8 

8K 

9 

9K 

10 

II 

iiK 

12 

Spirketting. 

3 

3K 

3K 

4 

4X 

4J< 

4K 

5 

5K 

5K 

6 

(>A 

Ceiling  Below  Hold  Beam  Clamp  and  Between  Decks. 

2 

2K 

3 

i'A 

3K 

4 

^yi 

^'A 

4^ 

5 

5X 

5A 

Bilge  Plank  (inside). 

3 

3K 

4X 

4K 

5K 

byi 

7 

8 

9 

loK 

iiK 

12 

Thickstuff  Over  Long  and  Short  Floorheads  and  Limber  Strakes. 

2?< 

3X 

3K 

4 

4K 

5 

i'A 

6 

6K 

7 

rA 

7  A 

Main  Keelson  (Rider  Keelsons  may  be  two-thirds  that  of  main 
ditto) . 

10 

iiK 

12K 

H 

15 

^i'A 

I5K 

15K 

16 

16K 

i(>A 

17 

TABLE  3D— LLOYD'S  FASTENING  DIMENSIONS 
Sizes  of  Bolts,  Pintles  of  Rudder,  and  Treenails 

TONNAGE 


Heel-Knee,  Sterason  and  Deadwood  Bolts    Inches 


'% 


ISO 


I  H'e 


300 


1% 


3S0 


1% 


400 


1^6 


1% 


1% 


1% 


Bolts  in  Sister  Keelsons,  Scarphs  of  Keel  (a),  Breast  Hooks, 
Pointers,  Crutches,  Riders,  Knees  to  Hold  or  Lower  Deck 
Beams,  Shelf,  Clamp  and  Waterway  Throat  Bolts  of  Upper 
Deck  Hanging  Knees. 


'% 


'% 


'Hi 


'Ke 


Ws 


'*/i6 


1% 


1% 


1^6 


Keelson  Bolts,  Throats  of  Transoms,  Throats  of  Breast  Hooks, 
and  Throats  of  Hanging  Knees  to  Hold  or  Lower  Deck  Beams. 


'Ke 


'ife 


'Hi 


iKe 


1% 


I  Hi 


I  Hi 


Bilge,  Limber  Strake,  and  Through  Butt  Bolts. 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'Hi 


"/ii 


'Hi 


'He 


'Hi 


'He 


'Hi 


Other  Butt  Bolts. 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'He 


'He 


'Hi 


'Hi 


Bolts  through  Heels  ot  Cant  Timbers,  Bolts  of  Upper  Deck 
Waterway,  Shelf  and  Clamp,  Arms  of  Hanging  and  Lodging 
Knees. 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'Hi 


'He 


'He 


Pintles  of  Rudder. 


2  H 


2  A 


2  H 


2  H 


3A 


3A 


iA 


Hardwood  Treenails. 


I  A 


I  A 


I  A 


I  A 


I  A 


I  H 


I  A 


(a)      Number  of  Bolts  in  Scarphs  of  Keel: 

In  ships  of  ISO  tons  and  under 6   Bolts  ]  These  bolts  to  be  of 

"    above  150  tons  and  under  500  tons.  7   Bolts    }      Copper  or  Yellow 

"         '    500  tons  and  above 8   Bolts   J       Metal  in  all  cases 

N.B.    Bolts  to  be  through  and  clenched,  and  to  be  of  good  quality,  well  made  with 

suitable  heads  and  be  tightly  driven. 


22 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


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WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


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24 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


3d.     General  Remarks 

While  building  rules  specify  dimensions  of  materials 
that  should  be  used  for  each  part  of  a  vessel's  construc- 
tion it  is  not  necessary  to  use  materials  of  exact  dimen- 
sions named,  providing  scantlings  used  are  not  less  than 
those  specified  in  tables.  Thus  it  is  permitted  to  use 
heavier  frame  timbers  spaced  a  greater  distance  apart, 
or  to  use  keel,  keelson  and  other  longitudinal  timbers 
having'  sided  and  moulded  dimensions  differing  from 
those  specified  but  in  all  cases  the  alteration  in  dimensions 
must  not  lessen  strength  of  the  whole  structure  and,  of 
course,  the  actual  strength  of  each  assemblage  of  timbers 
must  be  equivalent  to  strength  of  timbers  having  dimen- 
sions specified  by  rules. 

In  addition  to  this,  improvements  in  construction  de- 
tails likely  to  increase  strength  of  whole  structure,  or  to 
make  a  vessel  constructed  of  lighter  scantlings  equal  or 
superior  in  strength  to  one  constructed  of  materials  hav- 
ing specified  scantlings  are  permitted  by  all  classification 
rules  providing  the  plans  of  construction  are  submitted  to 
classification  society  before  vessel  is  built  and  construc- 
tion as  shown  on  plans  is  approved. 

Originally  a  wooden  vessel  was  entirely  a  timber 
product,  shaped  and  assembled  by  hand-labor,  and  being 
such  the  required  construction  strength  was  obtained  by 
using  an  exceedingly  large  amount  of  first-quality  ma- 
terial. In  other  words,  dimensions  of  material  were 
excessive. 


With  the  advent  of  machinery  and  larger  use  of  iron 
and  steel  it  became  possible  to  reduce  the  amount  of  ma- 
terial used  for  many  parts  of  construction  and  by  sub- 
stituting iron  and  steel  for  other  parts,  or  combinng 
the  proper  amounts  of  these  metals  with  the  wood,  to 
obtain  greater  strength  with  lessened  weight. 

Today,  many  labor-saving  machines  are  used  in  ship- 
yards, thus  methods  of  assembling  timbers  and  combin- 
ing them  with  steel  and  wood  that  could  not  be  used  in 
the  old  days,  because  of  excessive  cost,  are  now  available 
and  it  has  become  possible  to  construct  wooden  vessels 
that  have  greater  strength  than  any  turned  out  in  the 
old  days. 

The  successful  wooden  vessel  of  the  future  will  be 
one  in  which  parts  composed  of  wood  will  be  composed 
of  a  minimum  of  material  fitted  together  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  a  maximum  amount  of  strength  will  be  obtained, 
and  a  certain  proportion  of  steel  will  be  used  in  combi- 
nation with  the  wood.  Thus,  in  place  of  an  all  wood 
solid  keelson  it  is  likely  that  all  wood  trussed  keelsons 
will  be  used,  or  all  steel  trussed  keelhons,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  a  steel  trused  nelson  with  wood  members. 

It  is  also  likely  that  there  will  be  an  increased  use 
of  diagonal  steel  bracing  both  outside  and  inside  of  the 
frames,  and  very  likely  steel  knees  will  be  substituted  for 
wooden  ones.  In  addition  to  this,  it  will  be  found  ad- 
vantageous to  substitute  steel  waterways  and  sheer 
strakes  for  the  present  wood  ones. 


FORMULA  FOR  ASCERTAINING  DIMENSIONS  OF 
MATERIALS  TO  USE 

Rule — If  the  moulded  breadth  of  vessel  is  multiplied  by  the  decimal 
entered  against  each  principal  part  of  construction  the  proper 
dimension  of  material  to  use  will  be  ascertained,  approximately. 


Name  of  Part 

Decimal  Multiplier 

Keel  Siding 

.40— .42 
•45 — 50 

Keel  Moulded 

Keelson  Main 

.40— .42 
.25— .28 
.40 — .42 

Frame  Siding 

Frame  Moulded  at  Floors 

Frame  Moulded  at  Top 

Main  Deck  Beams 

.16 — .20 
.30 — -.35 

Planking  Thickness,  Bottom 

Planking  Thickness,  Wales 

Planking  Thickness,  Top  Planking 

.1 
.12 

•  IS 

.15 — .20 

Ceiling  at  Bottom 

Ceiling  at  Bilge 

.25 

.25— .30 
.1 
.m — .20 

Deck  Planking 

Coamings 

Stanchions  Between  Decks 

.20 — .22 

Lodge  Knees 

Hanging  Knees 

.15— -18 
.20 — .25 

Chapter  IV 

Tonnage 


In  the  early  days  of  commercial  intercourse  between 
France  and  England,  a  large  portion  of  the  cargo  carried 
in  vessels  consisted  of  wine  in  large  casks,  called  Urns. 
As  trade  increased  it  was  found  that  it  would  be  a 
great  convenience  to  have  some  generally  understood 
and  simple  method  for  determining  the  carrying  capacity 
of  each  vessel,  and  very  naturally  it  became  a  practice  for 
vessel  owners  to  state,  when  a  question  regarding  size  of 
a  vessel  was  asked,  that  the  capacity  was  so  many  tuns 
of  wine,  and  as  the  tun  was  a  standard  of  measure  known 
to  all  who  owned  vessels  and  shipped  goods  in  them,  a 
knowledge  of  capacity  in  tuns  enabled  both  to  accurately 
estimate  capacity  for  carrying  in  other  trades.  Thus  the 
tun  became  a  standard  of  a  vessel's  capacity  to  carry 
cargo  of  all  kinds. 

The  word  tun  ultimately  became  corrupted  to  ton  and 
turmage  to  tonnage,  and  no  doubt  the  fact  that  the 
actual  weight  of  a  tun  filled  with  wine  approximated 
2,000  lb  tended  to  preserve  the  name  even  after  the 
necessity  for  doing  so  ceased. 

Note. — ^The  capacity  of  a  tun  was  equal  to  252  gallons 
of  231  cubic  inches. 

The  tonnage  of  a  ship  is  the  capacity  which  the  body, 
or  hull,  has  for  carrying  cargo,  or  weights. 

4a.    Tonnage.     Explained 

In  these  days  the  word  tonnage,  when  referring  to  a 
vessel,  should  never  be  used  without  expressly  stating 
the  kind  of  tonnage  meant.     Unless  this  is  done  confusion 
results,  because  any  one  of  five  different  tonnage  weights 
or  measurements  can  be  meant.     These  are: 
1st. — The   builders',   or   classification   societies'    tonnage 
measurement,    sometimes    used    when    calculating 
dimensions  of  materials  required  to  insure  proper 
strength  of  construction. 
2d. — The    Gross    registered    tonnage,    or    total   internal 
capacity  of  vessel  as  measured  by  a  government 
surveyor  for  the  purpose  of  registration. 
3d. — The  Net  registered  tonnage,  or  tonnage  measure- 
ment ascertained  by  deducting  from  gross  tonnage 
the  measurement  (capacity)  of  space  occupied  by 
engines,  steering  apparatus  and  certain  designated 
spaces  that  cannot  be  used  for  the  storage  of  cargo. 
This  measurement  is  also  made  by  a  government 
surveyor. 
4th. — The  Light  displacement  (in  tons),  ascertained  when 
vessel  is  designed  by  actually  calculating  the  dis- 
placement weight  to   water-line  vessel  will   float 


when  ready  for  sea  with  clear  swept  holds, 
empty  bunkers  and  tanks. 
Sth. — The  Heavy  displacement,  or  loaded  displacement 
(in  tons),  also  ascertained  by  designer  calculating 
displacement  weight  when  vessel  is  floating  to  the 
deepest  water-line  she  can  safely  be  loaded  to. 

4b.     Method  of  Calculating  Builders'  or  Classifi- 
cation Societies'  Tonnage 

The  length,  breadth  and  depth  of  vessel  is  measured. 

Length  measurement  being  taken  from  after  side  of 
stem  to  fore  side  of  stern-post.  This  measure  is  taken 
along  center  line  of  deck. 

Breadth  measure  is  taken  over  all  at  widest  part. 

Depth  measure  is  taken  from  top  of  ceiling  of  hold 
alongside  keelson,  to  underside  of  main  deck.  This 
measure  is  made  at  forward  end  of  main  hatch. 

Then  the  tonnage  is  ascertained  by  multiplying  dimen- 
sions, taken  as  above,  into  each  other,  and  dividing  the 
product  by  100.  Three-quarters  of  quotient  will  be  the 
tonnage. 

L  X  B  X  D  X  0.75 
=  Tonnage. 

IOC 

Note. — In  the  above  formula  the  divisor  100  repre- 
sents the  average  number  of  cubic  feet  of  bulk  allowed 
for  one  ton  of  cargo  when  vessel  is  measured  in  manner 
stated.  The  coefficient  0.75  indicates  the  assumed  fine- 
•ness  of  form  (block  coefficient)  of  the  average  vessel. 

4c.     Meaning  of  Gross  Tonnage  and  Method  of 
Calculating  It 

The  Gross  tonnage  of  a  vessel  is  its  internal  capacity, 
as  calculated  by  method  of  measurement  in  use  in  the 
country  where  vessel  is  being  measured.  There  are 
several  methods  of  measuring  tonnage — U.  S.  A.,  British, 
Panama  Canal,  Suez  Canal,  Italian,  etc. — and  while  each 
country  uses  a  different  method,  the  underlying  principle 
of  each  rule  is  to  ascertain  as  accurately  as  possible  the 
actual  internal  capacity  of  vessel. 

The  United  States  and  British  rules  are  very  similar, 
and  as  they  are  the  ones  most  frequently  used,  I  will  ex- 
plain method  of  measuring  a  vessel  by  using  these  rules. 

Gross  tonnage  in  U.  S.  A.  is  measured  in  this  manner: 

The  length  of  vessel  is  measured  in  a  straight  line 
from  inside  of  plank  at  side  of  stem  to  inside  of  plank 
at  stern  timbers,  deducting  from  this  length  what  is  due 
to  rake  of  bow  and  of  stern  timber  in  the  thickness  of 


26 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


deck,  and  also  what  is  due  to  rake  of  stem  timber  due  to 
round  of  beam;  the  length  thus  ascertained  is  divided 
into  equal  parts,  the  number  depending  upon  length  of 
vessel : 

Vessels  50  feet  and  under  in  length  are  divided  into 
six  parts; 

Vessels  over  50  and  up  to  100  are  divided  into  eight 
parts ; 

Vessels  over  100  and  up  to  150  are  divided  into  ten 
parts ; 

Vessels  over  150  and  up  to  200  are  divided  into  twelve 
parts ; 

Vessels  over  200  and  up  to  250  are  divided  into  four- 
teen parts; 

Vessels  above  250  feet  are  divided  into  sixteen  parts. 

Then  at  each  point  of  division  of  length  measure  the 
transverse  area  is  ascertained  in  this  manner : 

The  depth  of  vessel  at  each  point  of  division  is 
measured  from  top  of  ceiling  to  the  underside  of  tonnage 
deck  and  from  this  measure  is  deducted  one-third  of  the 
round  of  tonnage  deck  beam.  If  the  depth  measure  at 
midship  point  of  division  does  not  exceed  16  feet,  each 
depth  measure  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts  and  the 
inside  horizontal  breadth  at  each  depth  point  of  division 
including  the  upper  and  lower  points  is  ascertained  (five 
measures  in  all  at  each  depth  measure).  The  points  of 
division  are  numbered  from  i  at  deck  to  5  at  ceiling,  then 
the  second  and  fourth  breadth  measures  are  multiplied 
by  four,  and  the  third  by  two;  these  products  are  added 
together  and  to  the  sum  is  added  the  breadth  measure  of 
first  and  fifth ;  the  quantity  thus  obtained,  when  multiplied 
by  one-third  the  common  interval  between  breadth 
measurement  lines,  will  give  the  transverse  area.  In 
cases  when  depth  measure  at  midship  point  of  division 
exceeds  16  feet,  depth  must  be  divided  into  six  parts 
.(seven  lines  for  measuring),  the  multipliers  for  second, 
fourth  and  sixth  measurement  is  four,  and  the  third  and 
fifth  is  two.  Products  are  added  and  the  calculation  madfe 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  explained  for  the  smaller 
depth. 

When  transverse  area  at  each  point  of  division  is 
ascertained,  the  Gross  registered  tonnage  is  calculated  in 
this  manner : 

The  areas  are  numbered  successively,  beginning  with 
I  at  extreme  bow.  (There  will  be  an  odd  number  of 
.areas  in  every  instance.)  All  ^z/ew-numbered  area 
measures  are  added  and  product  multiplied  by  four,  then 
all  even  numbered  area  measures,  except  first  and  last, 
are  added  and  product  multiplied  by  two;  the  two  prod- 
ucts are  added  and  to  the  sum  the  area  measures  of  first 
and  last  is  added.  When  the  total  thus  obtained  is 
multiplied  by  one-third  the  common  interval  between 
points  of  length  division, .  the  cubical  contents  of  vessel 
below  tonnage  deck  will  be  ascertained.  This  tonnage 
measurement  is  subject  to  these  additions : 
"  ,    If,  there  is  a  break,  a  poop,  or  any  other  permanent 


closed-in  space  on  upper  deck  available  for  cargo,  or 
stores,  or  the  accommodation  of  passengers  or  crew,  the 
cubical  contents  of  such  spaces  must  be  ascertained  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  one  explained  and  added  to  total 
already  ascertained,  and  if  a  vessel  has  a  spar  deck  the 
cubical  contents  of  the  space  between  it  and  the  tonnage 
deck  must  also  be  measured  in  the  manner  already  ex- 
plained and  total  added  to  other  totals.  The  sum  of  all 
these  totals  is  the  cubical  measurement  of  vessel's  internal 
space  and  if  this  sum  is  divided  by  100  the  gross  registered 
tonnage  of  the  vessel  will  be  ascertained. 

4d.     Meaning  of  Net  Registered  Tonnage  and 
Method  of  Calculating  It 

The  net  tonnage  is  the  internal  capacity  of  space 
available  for  carrying  cargo  and  passengers,  and  is  as- 
certained by  deducting  from  the  gross  internal  capacity, 
as  ascertained  by  the  rule,  the  capacity  of  spaces  that  are 
exempt  from  measurement. 

These  spaces  are : 

(a)  Spaces  occupied  by  or  appropriated  to  use  of 
crew  of  vessel. 

Note  the  regulations  of  U.  S.  require  that  each 
member  of  crew  have  a  space  of  not  less  than  12 
superficial  feet  and  75  cubic  feet  allotted  to  him. 

(b)  A  reasonable  and  proper  amount  of  space  ex- 
clusively for  use  of  the  Master. 

(c)  Space  used  exclusively  for  working  of  helm, 
the  capstan,  the  anchor  gear,  and  for  the  keeping 
of  charts,  signals,  and  other  instrurtients  of 
navigation. 

(d)  Space  occupied  by  donkey  engine  if  same  is  con- 
nected to  main  pumps  of  vessel. 

(e)  In  sailing  vessels,  space  used  exclusively  for 
storage  of  sails,  tonnage  of  said  space  not  to  exceed 
2j^%  of  gross  tonnage. 

(f)  In  vessels  propelled  by  steam,  the  deduction  for 
space  occupied  by  propelling  machinery  is  as 
follows : 

If  propelled  by  paddle  wheels,  and  the  space  oc- 
cupied by  machinery  and  for  the  proper  working 
of  boilers  and  machinery  is  above  20%  and  under 
30%  of  gross  tonnage,  a  deduction  of  37%  from 
gross  tonnage  is  allowed;  in  vessels  propelled  by 
screws,  if  space  is  over  13%  and  is  under  20%, 
the  deduction, shall  be  32%.  In  all  cases  the  space 
.  occupied  by  sha  f t  alleys  shall  be  deemed  ,a  space 
occupied  by.  machinery. 

(g)  In  cases  when  the  actual  space  occupied  by  ma- 
chinery amounts  to  under  20%  of  gross  tonnage 
in  the  case  of,  paddle  veissels,  and  under  13%  of 
gross  tonnage  in  case  of  screw  vessels,  the  deduc- 

r-  ■  '  tion  shall  be  ij4  tiqies  the  actual  space  in  the  case 
_:.\  ■',oi  paddle  vessels  and  ,1^  timies.  space  , in  cases  of 
;-:[>   if  screw  vessel?.  .     ■;■'■:■'■, -r  i,:i:i;K-:.:-U: 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


27 


Fan  -rti^nsexse 


Tig.   9 


(h)     And  in  cases  when  space  occupied  by  machinery 
is  so  large  as  to  amount  to  over  30%  of  gross 
tonnage  in  the  case  of  paddle  vessels,  and  over  20% 
of  gross  tonnage  in  screw  machinery,  the  owner 
has  the  right  to  select  the  actual  space  measure- 
ment instead  of  the  measure  set  as  in  (f). 
And  these  proper  deductions  from  the  gross  tonnage 
having  been  made,  the  remainder  shall  be  deemed  the 
net  tonnage  of  vessel. 

Below  I  give  a  table  of  Gross,  Net  and  Builder's  Ton- 
nage of  a  number  of  vessels. 

Table  4 


Gross 

Net 

Builder's 

No. 

Type 

L.        B.    D. 

Tonnage 

Tonnage 

Tonnage 

I 

Ship    

320—42—24 

2,699 

2,541 

2,419 

2 

Schooner    

258—44-28 

2,461 

2,342 

2,383 

7, 

(( 

211— 34— 17 

1,088 

879 

914 

4 

n 

14s— 24— 12 

354 

336 

417 

5 

Screw  Steamer 

330—43—29 

3,708 

2,375 

3,086 

6 

270—35—21 

1,925 

1,199 

1,488 

7 

490—60—37 

10,530 

6,420 

8,158 

8 

230—32—20 

1,050 

750 

1,104 

9 

220 — 36 — 14 

944 

674 

831 

10 

130— 21— II 

250 

158 

225 

Fig.  9  shows  points  used  for  measuring  tonnage  of  a 
vessel,  and  below  it  I  give  tabulated  particulars  of  gross 
and  net  tonnage  of  No.  i  and  No.  5  vessels  on  list. 
Table  4. 

Ship  No.  I,  320x42x24.      :  , 

Under  deck  tonnage  2,549 


Poop  tonnage;  . ..  .i .'. 

■  Fcastle  tonnage  ..... 

Deck  house   . . ., 


120 
20 
10 


f;i 


Deductions — 

Crew's  space  . 
Chart  House  . . 
■ '  P'swiiin  stores 
Sail  locker  . . . 


'Gross'tonnage 
Deduction  . . : . 


.  r  .  I  . 


•••r'•.^.^•;  <•  • 


••  V  •••• 


2,699;  Gross  tons 

117 
5 

,  -«o... 


. 158  tons 
2,699    ■  ;:= 
158       .... 


i  ■;'??; 

'r?-) 


2,541  Nfet  tonnage 


Steamer  No.  s,  330x43x29 

Under  tonnage  deck  3,488 

Fcastle   90 

Deck  houses 80 

Other  closed  spaces   50 

3,708  Gross  ton'ge 
Deductions — 

Machinery  space 1,104 

Crew  space 142 

Stores    57 

Master's  room 22 

Chart  room   8 

1,333  tons 

Gross   tonnage 3,7o8 

Deductions  i,333 

2,375  Net  tonnage 

4e.    Panama  and  Stjez  ^anal  Tonnage 

Special  tonnage  certificates  are  required  for  ships  that 
navigate  either  the  Panama  or  Suez  cana:ls,  because  the 
methods  of  computing  net  registered  tonnage  by  the  canal 
authorities  differ  somewhat  from  the  rules  in  force  in 
U.  S.  A.  and  Great  Britain.  The  rules  for  measuring, 
while  very  similar  to  the  one  explained,  have  minor  points 
of  diflference  that  should  be  considered  by  owners  before 
building  a  vessel  that  will  frequently  pass  through  either 
of  these  canals,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  canal 
dues  are  based  upon  the  registered  tonnage  as  measured 
by  canal  authorities.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  explain 
the  small  differences  between  the  measurement  systems, 
but  always  bear  in  mind  that  as  a  ship's  dues,  such  as 
pilotage,  dock,  river,  etc.,  in  almost  every  country  where 
such  dues  are  collected  are  based  upon  the  registered 
tonnage,  it  is  of  prime  importance,  from  an  economical 
point  of  view,  to  carefully  consider  the  tonnage  rules  and 
so  design  a  vessel  that  it  will  have  a  maximum  of  carrying 
capacity  and  a  minimum  registered  tonnage.      - 

Registered  tonnage  does  not  really  give  an  acctirate 
idea  of  size  and,  therefore,  should  never  be  used  as  a 
base  for  comparing  the  size. of  -one  vessel  with  that. of 
another.;   '.  .;  ;!  .•,    '-    -         '•'  ,:'.■;    :  ^r' 

■■    If  it'is'desired  to  compare  size,  the  onlyaccui-ate  basis 
f of  comparison  is  light  displacement  and  heavy  displace- 


28 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


O/gPLncencn-r   .sc/^Lr- 


Hg.  11 


ment,  because  by  comparing  these  it  is  possible  to  ac- 
curately form  an  idea  of  size  of  vessel  and  size  of  cargo 
she  will  carry. 

4f.     Light  Displacement  Calculation 

The  term  displacement,  when  applied  to  a  vessel, 
means  the  amount  of  water  displaced  by  the  immersed 
part  of  vessel.  Displacement  is,  in  U.  S.  A.,  expressed 
in  tons  of  2,240  lb,  when  it  is  desired  to  express  it  in 
terms  of  weight,  or  in  cubic  feet  when  it  is. desired  to 
express  it  in  terms  of  bulk. 

The  law  of  displacement  is: 
1st. — That  a   solid  immersed   in  water   will   displace  a 
volume  of  water  exactly  the  same  as  the  hulk  of 
object  immersed. 
2d. — That  any  solid  will  float  when  its  bulk  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  water  displaced. 

Weight  and  bulk  are,  therefore,  the  two  principal 
things  to  consider  when  calculating  displacement,  and  it  is 
very  important  to  clearly  understand  that  both  hulk  and 
weight  must  be  taken  into  consideration  when  making  a 
displacement  calculation. 

The  Light  displacement  of  a  vessel  is  the  weight  of 
water  displaced  when  vessel  is  floating  without  cargo,  coal, 
water,  stores,  or  crew  on  board.  The  calculation  to  de- 
termine this  weight  is  made  in  this  manner : 

The  designer  carefully  measures  the  hulk  of  that  por- 
tion of  vessel  that  is  below  the  water-line  to  which  she 
floats  when  in  a  light  condition  and  for  each  cubic  foot 
of  bulk  he  allows  64  tb  weight  (the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  salt  water)  if  vessel  is  floating  in  salt  water,  or  62.5  lb 
if  floating  in  fresh  water  (fresh  water  weighs  62.5  tb 
per  cubic  foot). 

The  bulk  is  measured  by  dividing  the  underwater 
portion  of  vessel  into  parts,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
one  explained  in  paragraph  dealing  with  Tonnage 
measurement,  ascertaining  the  area  at  each  point  of  divi- 
sion and  then  calculating  volume  or  bulk  by  using  the 
area  measures  for  a  second  calculation.     Bear  in  mind 


that  only  the  underwater  bulk  is  measured.  If  the 
Volume  figures  ascertained  by  making  this  second  cal- 
culation are  divided  by  35  (32.5  for  fresh  water)  the 
actual  displacement  of  vessel  to  water-line  she  is  floating 
will  be  determined  in  tons  of  2,240  tb  (35  cubic  feet  of 
salt  water  weighs  one  ton).  The  calculation  is  called 
Simpson's  rule  for  measuring  the  volume  of  irregularly 
shaped  bodies. 

The  measurements  for  underwater  bulk  calculation 
are  made  from  outside  to  outside  of  planking  and  not 
inside,  as  in  the  registered  tonnage  calculation. 

4g.     Heavy  Displacement  Calculation 

The  light  displacement  having  been  determined,  it  is 
next  necessary  to  determine  the  Displacement  when  vessel 
is  floating  to  the  deepest  draught  of  water  it  is  permitted 
to  load  her  to.  This  is  called  the  Heavy  or  Loaded  dis- 
placement, and  the  calculation  is  made  in  exactly  the 
manner  that  light  displacement  calculation  is  made,  except 
that  displacement  measurements  are  taken  from  the 
heavy  load  water-line  instead  of  from  the  light  load 
water-line. 

The  difference  between  the  light  and  loaded  displace- 
ment weights  is  the  deadweight. 

4h.     Deadweight 

The  Deadweight  of  a  vessel  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
each  change  in  draught,  because  deadweight  is  the  dif- 
ference between  the  displacement  weight  in  a  light  con- 
dition and  at  any  specified  draught. 

4i.     How  Light  Displacement  W.L.  is  Fixed 

The  light  displacement  water-line  always  depends  upon 
the  weight  of  material  used  in  the  construction  of  vessel, 
therefore,  it  cannot  change  unless  construction  or  other 
permanent  material  is  added  to  or  taken  from  hull,  or 
equipment.  Deadweight  varies  with  each  change  in 
weight  of  cargo  or  other  removable  weights  placed  on 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


29 


vessel,  but  there  is  for  every  vessel  a  water-line  beyond 
which  it  is  not  safe  to  immerse  a  vessel,  and  this  maxi- 
mum safe  water-line  is  the  Heavy  displacement  water- 
line. 

This  heavy  displacement  water-line  is  always  fixed, 
when  vessel  is  built,  by  the  classification  society  that 
surveys  the  vessel  for  classification  and  is  indicated  by 
marking  on  side  of  vessel  near  its  midship  section  an 
identifying  freeboard  mark  somewhat  similar  to  the  one 
shown  by  Fig.  10. 

FW 


et 


4j.     Explanation  of  Freeboard  Mark 

The  long  horizontal  mark  indicated  by  letter  5  is 
placed  on  line  to  which  vessel  may  load  in  salt  water 
during  the  summer  months.  The  upper  short  line  marked 
FW  is  placed  on  line  to  which  vessel  may  be  loaded 
when  in  service  in  fresh  water. 

The  lower  short  line  marked  W  is  placed  on  line  to 
which  vessel  may  load  when  in  service  on  salt  water 
during  the  winter  months. 

The  long  line  is  placed  through  center  of  a  circle  and 
all  marks  including  circle  are  permanently  graved  or 
marked  on  hull  plating  or  planking  and  then  painted  a 
color  that  will  be  clearly  distinguishable. 

Both  light  and  heavy  displacement  water-lines  and 
weight  required  to  immerse  a  vessel  to  these  lines  is  known 
and  fixed,  but  suppose  a  vessel  is  loaded  to  a  line  between 
fliese  two  and  that  it  is  desired  to  ascertain  the  displace- 
ment weight  to  the  intermediate  line,  how  can  this  be 
done?     It  is  done  in  this  manner: 

4k.     Displacement  Curve  and  Deadweight  Scale 

When  a  vessel  is  designed,  the  designer  calculates 
the  displacement  weight  to  a  number  of  equally  spaced 
parallel  water-lines  between  the  heavy  and  light  ones, 
and  having  done  this  he  lays  out  a  curve  of  displacement 
and  vertical  deadweight  scale,  from  which  the  owner  of 
vessel  can  quickly  ascertain  displacement  weight  of  vessel 
to  any  intermediate  water-line,  the  cargo  weight  neces- 
sary to  immerse  vessel  to  any  draught  of  water  between 
light  and  heavy  L.W.L.  draughts,  and  amount  of  free- 
board when  vessel  is  immersed  to  any  water-line. 

On  Fig.  II  I  show  displacement  curve  and  dead- 
weight vertical  scale  of  cargo  vesseK  No.  8  (See  page 
28.) 

Explanation  of  Fig.  ii 

The  vertical  scale  on  left  is  divided  into  equally  spaced 
intervals,  each  interval  representing  100  tons  of  displace- 
ment, the  o  of  displacement  scale  beginning  at  intersection 
point  of  the  two  scales. 

The  curved  line  that  begins  at  bottom  of  vertical  scale 


and  extends  diagonally  to  horizontal  scale  is  the  displace- 
ment curve  of  vessel  plotted  by  calculating  displacement 
of  vessel  at  several  evenly  spaced  water-lines,  marking 
points  where  the  ascertained  tonnage  and  draught  lines 
will  intersect  and  drawing  a  curved  line  to  cut  the  points. 
Thus  as  the  light  displacement  drayght  is  7  feet  and  the 
displacement  at  that  draught  is  690  tons,  a  horizontal  line 
is  drawn  from  named  draught  and  a  vertical  line  down 
from  ascertained  tonnage  for  that  draught,  and  the  point 
of  intersection  found.  The  displacement  curve  passes 
through  this  point,  and  others  found  in  a  like  manner. 

On  the  right  of  curve  is  shown  the  deadweight  scale. 
This  is  divided  into  four  columns,  the  first  being  marked 
in  tons  displacement,  the  second  in  feet  of  draught  from 
keel  up,  the  third  in  deadweight  tons  beginning  with  o  at 
the  light  displacement  draught,  and  the  fourth  in  free- 
board measures  beginning  with  o  at  sheer  and  progress- 
ing downwards  to  the  light  displacement  line. 

To  make  the  explanation  clearer,  I  have  marked  at  left 
of  scale  an  outline  of  cross-section  with  light  and  heavy 
water-lines  marked.  The  portion  of  section  that  is  diago- 
nally cross  lines  in  one  direction  is  the  portion  immersed 
when  vessel  is  floating  to  her  light  displacement  line 
(without  cargo,  stores  and  equipment),  the  portion  cross 
lines  in  two  directions  is  the  portion  immersed  by  putting 
cargo,  stores,  etc.,  on  board,  and  the  portion  that  is  not 
lined  is  the  part  of  vessel  that  is  out  of  water  (freeboard) 
when  she  is  loaded  to  her  deepest  draught. 

4I.  Volume  of  Internal  Body  or  Room  in  a  Ship 
This  is  very  difl^erent  from  the  displacement  which 
measures  the  whole  space  a  ship  occupies  in  the  water, 
and  the  weight  of  both  vessel  and  everything  on  board. 
The  volume  of  internal  room  in  a  ship  is  measurement 
of  the  empty  space  left  inside  of  hull. 

On  Table  4a  is  given  the  approximate  thickness  of 
sides  of  wood  cargo  vessels  and  the  percentage  of  dif- 
ference between  internal  and  external  capacity. 

Table  4A 


Internal 
Capacity 
in  Tons 

External  Capacity 

Increased  Per  Cent 

in  Wood  Ships 

Thicltness  of  S 

of  Wood  Shi 

in  Inches 

100 

0.28 

II 

200 
300 

0.27 
0.26 

I2H 

14 

400 
500 

0.25 
0.24 

16 

1000 

0.20 

20 

2000 

0.16 

24 

The  proportions  above  are  for  ordinary  sailing  vessel 
and  will  hold  good  for  ships  that  are  similar. 

If  the  designer  fails  to  accurately  determine  before- 
hand the  relative  proportions  that  internal  capacity  avail- 
able for  cargo  bears  to  displacement  it  may  happen  that 
a  vessel  will  not  have  enough  displacement  of  under- 
water body  to  enable  her  to  carry  a  full  weight  of  cargo 
and  it  may  also  happen  that  she  has  plenty  of  displace- 
ment to  carry  more  cargo  without  having  room  to  store  it. 


Chapter  V 

Strains  Experienced  by  a  Ship's  Structure 


The  chief  strains  to  which  a  ship's  structure  is  sub- 
jected are: 

1st. — Strains  tending  to  produce  longitudinal  bending 
of  the  whole  structure. 

2d. — Strains  tending  to  alter  the  transverse  shape. 

3d. — Local  affecting  some  particular  part  and  tending 
to  produce  local  changes  in  shape  or  damage. 

4th. — Strains  due  to  propulsion  by  steam  or  sail. 

The  first  and  second  items  mentioned  are  strains  that 
affect  the  structure  as  a  whole,  and  therefore  must  be 
taken  care  of  and  overcome  by  an  intelligent  design  of 
the  whole  structure  and  a  proper  use  of  materials.  The 
effects  of  third  and  fourth  items  being  local  can  be 
readily  overcome  by  giving  ample  strength  to  parts  of 
structure  likely  to  be  affected  by  the  strains. 

5a.     Longitudinal  Bending  Strains  When  a  Ship  Is 
Afloat  in  Still  Water 

These  are  partly,  due  to  uneven  distribution  of  weight 
of  hull  structure  and  the  fact  that  this  distribution  does 
not  coincide  with  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  upward 
pressure  due  to  buoyancy  of  water,  and  partly  to  weight 
of  cargo  and  its  uneven  weight  distribution. 

When  a  ship  is  afloat  in  still  water  the  down  pressure 
due  to  weight  of  hull  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  up  pres- 
sure due  to  buoyancy  of  water,  and  the  longitudinal 
center  points  of  these  two  forces  always  exactly  coincide. 
Considered  in  this  manner  it  would  naturally  seem  that 
the  two  forces  being  equal  and  acting  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, there  is  an  absence  of  strain;  but  this  is  not  really 
the  case  as  will  appear  when  I  analyze  the  problem. 

A  ship  placed  in  water  will  sink  until  it  displaces  a 
volume  of  water  having  a  weight  exactly  equal  to  the 
weight  of  ship  and  all  on  board,  the  bulk  of  immersed 
portion  of  ship  and  bulk  of  water  displaced  will  be 
identical,  the  longitudinal  center  point  of  bulk  of  water 
displaced  and  of  weight  of  ship  will  be  located  exactly 
over  each  other,  and  ship  will  float  to  a  straight  water- 
line.  This  condition  exists  because  the  pieces  of  which 
ship  is  built  being  rigidly  connected,  the  structure  has 
become  a  single  object  and  must  be  considered  as  sUch. 

Fig.  12  is  a  longitudinal  view  of  a  ship  afloat  and  on 


it  I  have  marked  the  center  points  of  bulk  of  water  dis- 
placed and  of  weight  of  ship  with  arrows  pointing  in 
direction  of  line  of  action  of  strain  due  to  buoyancy  up 
force  and  weight  down  force. 

That  the  up  and  down  forces  are  equal,  and  that  the 
center  of  these  forces  are  located  the  same  distance  from 
bow,  is  known,  because  these  are  fundamental  laws  of 
flotation,  but  until  the  longitudinal  immersed  form  of  a 
ship  and  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  weights  of  con- 
struction are  analyzed  and  compared,  it  will  not  be  known 
whether  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  bulk  and  of 
weight  coincide  at  points  of  length  other  than  at  the 
ones  marked  (the  center  points).  Unless  they  do  coin- 
cide at  all  points  there  will  be  a  permanent  strain  put  on 
structure,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  difference 
between  bulk  and  weight  distribution  throughout  ship's 
length. 

:  To  explain  this  more  fully  I  have  drawn  illustration 

Fig-  13. 


Fig.  13  shows  longitudinal  view  of  Fig.  12  ship  afloat, 
but  in  place  of  its  being  one  rigidly  connected  structure, 
I  have  assumed  that  the  structure  has  been  divided  into 
ten  parts,  that  each  part  has  been  made  watertight  with- 
out increasing  weight,  and  the  parts  connected  in  such  a 
manner  that  while  free  to  move  up  and  down,  they  can- 
not separate  or  move  sideways. 

If  the  ten-part  connected-together  ship  is  now  placed 
in  water  instead  of  floating  to  a  longitudinally  one  level 
water-line  as  shown  in  Fig.  12,:  it  will  float  somewhat  in 
the  manner  shown  on  Fig.  13,  the  reason  being : 

While  the  total  weight  of  ship  has  not  changed  and  it 
displaces  exactly  the  same  bulk  and  weight  of  water  as 
before,  the  separation  of  ship  enables  each  part  to  act 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  displacement,  which  is — 
iveight  and  bulk  of  object  immersed  and  weight  and  bulk 
of  water  displaced  must  be  identical. 

In  other  words,  each  part  accommodates  itself  to  a 
water-line  that  equalizes  weight  and  immersed  bulk,  which 
it  cannot  do  when  whole  ship  is  one  rigidly  connected 
structure. 

Thus  Nos.  I,  2,  9,  10  portions  of  structure  (bow  and 
stern)   have  a  greater  proportion  of  weight  than  buoy- 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


31 


ancy  below  marked  water-line  requires,  and  therefore 
being  free  to  immerse  independent  of  other  portions,  they 
sink  until  marked  water-line  is  some  distance  below 
water  level. 

The  Nos.  3,  4,  7,  8  portions  have  varying  degrees  of 
greater  buoyancy  below  marked  water-line  than  their 
weights  require,  therefore  these  portions  float  with 
marked  water-line  well  above  water  level. 

The  Nos.  5,  6  portions  have  weight  and  bulk  below 
marked  water-line  very  nearly  equalized,  therefore  these 
portions  float  with  marked  water-line  nearly  correspond- 
ing with  water  level. 

It  therefore  can  be  said  that  if  the  ten  separated 
parts,  when  floating  as  shown  in  Fig.  13,  were  rigidly 
connected  together  again  both  longitudinal  weight  and 
bulk  strains  would  be  equalized  for  the  entire  length  of 
ship  and  there  would  be  an  absence  of  structural  strain 
due  to  unequal  distribution  of  weight  and  bulk,  and  it 
can  also  be  said  that  if  the  ten  parts  are  rigidly  connected 
in  any  other  position  weight  and  bulk  will  not  be  equally 
distributed  throughout  length,  and  consequently  there 
must  be  some  degree  of  structural  strain  due  to  this  un- 
equal distribution. 

As  a  ship  cannot  float  in  the  manner  shown  by  Fig.  13, 
and  as  in  all  ships  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  bulk 
below  L.W.L.  does  not  coincide  with  longitudinal  dis- 
fribution  of  weight  of  construction,  etc.,  it  is  evident 
that  the  hull  structure  of  every  ship  is  under  strain  when 
afloat.  Bear  in  mind  that  this  strain  is  always  present, 
but  is  never  noticeable  and  does  not  have  any  permanent 
effect  on  hull  unless  the  longitudinal  structure  is  too 
weak  to  withstand  it. 

5b.     Hogging  Strains  Explained 

If  strength  of  hull  structure  is  not  sufficient  to  with- 
stand the  strain  the  ends  of  ship  will  drop,  relative  to 
center,  and  hull  will  ultimately  change  its  form  and 
become  "hogged". 

The  dotted  lines  on  Fig.  14  show  shape  when  ship 
shown  by  heavy  lines  become  hogged. 

Hogging  strains  are  nearly  always  present  when  a  ship 
is  floating  without  cargo  in  still  water,  but  if  it  should 
happen  that  condition  of  weight  and  buoyancy  are  such 
that  there  is  an  excess  of  buoyancy  at  ends  and  an  excess 
of  weight  near  middle,  the  middle  would  drop  relative  to 
ends  and  change  of  form,  if  hull  is  weak,  would  occur 
near  middle  lengtH.  A  change  in  this  kind  is  known  as 
sagging. 

5c.     Sagging  Strains  Expr.AiNED 

Sagging  strains  are  seldom  present  throughout  the 
whole  length  of  a  ship's  structure  when  ship  is  without 
cargo  and  is  floating  in  still  water.  In  loaded  condition 
and  when  moving  among  waves,  the  conditions  are  fre- 
quently such  as  to  produce  sagging  strains  at  every  part 


of  the  length.     (Fig.   14a  dotted  lines,  show  shape  of 
ship  that  has  sagged.) 


Before  it  is  possible  to  accurately  determine  the  eflPect 
longitudinal  strains  will  have  on  hull  structure  of  a  ship 
it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  relative  positions  and 
magnitude  of  each  kind  of  strain  throughout  the  length 
of  ship  and  to  calculate  their  effect  when  coupled  as 
one. 

Perhaps  you  will  more  clearly  understand  my  ex- 
planations of  strains  and  bending  moments  if  I  first  ex- 
plain a  few  simple  problems,  such  as  strains  on  weighted 
and  supported  beams. 

Fig.  15  shows  a  beam  supported  at  its  center  and 
loaded  at  both  ends,  the  weights  W  and  W  IV  being  equal 
and  placed  at  equal  distances  from  support.  A  beam 
loaded  and  supported  in  this  manner  is  under  a  sttain 
similar  to  that  experienced  by  a  ship  afloat  in  still  water 
and  having  an  excess  of  weight  at  ends  and  buoyancy 
and  weight  equalized  at  middle.  i; 


w 


FIG-.  15 


WW 


Fig.  15a  shows  the  same  beam  loaded  at  center  and 
supported  at  ends,  a  condition  of  loading  that  puts  a  sag- 
ging strain  at  center  of  beam.  A  beam  loaded  in  this 
manner  is  under  a  strain  similar  to  that  experienced  by 
a  ship  afloat  in  still  water  and  having  an  excess  of  weight 
at  center  and  buoyancy  and  weight  equal  at  ends.  ' 

w 


M 


FI&.IJ' 


Fig.  15b  shows  the  same  beam  supported  near  ends 
and  loaded  at  ends  and  at  center — a  condition  of  load- 
ing that  puts  both  sagging  and  hogging  strains  on  beam, 
the  magnitude  of  each  depending  upon  weight  and  dis- 
tance from  the  supports. 

If  W2  weight  is  greater  than  W-lVi  weights  there 
will  be  a  sagging  moment  at  center  of  beam,  but  the 
portion  of  beam  between  ends  and  supports  will  be  sub- 
jected to  hogging  strains  and  so  also  will  be  some  portion 


32 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Jl 


M 


i 


v-- 


FI&.  1^' 


of  beam  lying  between  the  supports  and  middle.  On  the 
illustration  a  dotted  outline  shows  general  lines  of  direc- 
tion of  strain.  But  if  the  moment  of  the  W-Wi  weight 
X  distance  weights  are  from  nearest  support,  is  greater 
than  moment  of  W2  weight  X  distance,  there  will  be  a 
hogging  strain  at  middle  of  beam  and  no  portion  of  beam 
will  be  subjected  to  a  sagging  strain. 

As  bending  moment  ^  weight  X  length  or  leverage, 
you  can  readily  understand  that  before  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  strains  on  a  weighted  beam,  it  is  essential 
that  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  both  weight  and 
supports  be  known. 

The  weighted  and  supported  beam  conditions  men- 
tioned above  are  similar  to  those  for  a  ship,  therefore,  it 
is  an  easy  matter  to  estimate  the  bending  moment  or 
strain  a  ship's  structure  must  withstand  when  the  longi- 
tudinal distribution  of  weight  and  buoyancy  (support 
of  water  surrounding  ship)  is  known. 

5d.     Curves  of  Buoyancy  Distribution 

The  longitudinal  distribution  of  the  buoyancy  of  a 
ship  floating  at  rest  in  still  water  may  readily  be  deter- 
mined when  the  lines  of  vessel  are  available,  and  a  curve 
of  buoyancy  can  be  plotted  by  marking  a  base  line  to 
represent  length  of  ship  and  on  this  base  line  erecting 
ordinates  at  right  angles  to  it  and  spaced  the  same  dis- 
tance apart  that  cross-sections  used  for  displacement  cal- 
culations are. 

Then  if  along  each  ordinate  line  there  is  measured  a 
distance  equal  to  cross-section  area  of  ship  at  that  point 
a  series  of  points  will  be  obtained  and  a  line  drawn  to 
cut  these  points  will  be  curve  of  buoyancy  of  ship  when 
floating  to  the  water-line  cross-section  areas  are  taken 
from. 

On  Fig.  16  I  show  curves  of  buoyancy  of  a  ship. 


B.  L.^Base  Line. 

I,  2,  3,  etc.,  are  ordinate  lines  spaced  the  distance  apart 
that  cross-section  lines  drawing  are. 

C.  B.  curve  of  buoyancy  drawn  through  points  laid 
off  on  ordinate  line,  the  solid  lines  curve  being  curve  of 
buoyancy  for  ship  when  floating  to  her  light  W.L.  with- 


out coal,  stores  or  cargo  on  board,  and  the  dash  line  curve 
is  curve  of  buoyancy  to  line  ship  floats  to  when  every- 
thing is  on  board  and  ship  is  fully  loaded  with  cargo. 

Each  curve  clearly  represents  the  longitudinal  dis- 
tribution of  buoyancy  of  ship  floating  to  a  different  W.L. 
and  the  area  enclosed  within  each  curve  represents  the 
total  buoyancy  or  displacement  volume  to  water-line 
measurements  are  taken  from. 

The  buoyancy  weight  of  portion  of  ship  lying  between 
any  two  ordinates  can  be  ascertained  by  measuring  areas 
enclosed  between  the  selected  lines  and  converting  it  into 
its  equivalent  displacement  volume.  The  light  displace- 
ment volume  of  ship  to  which  curve  belongs  is  47,250 
cubic  feet,  the  area  enclosed  within  solid  line  curve  is 
47,250  square  feet,  and  therefore  each  square  foot  of 
area  represents  one  cubic  foot  displacement  volume,  or  if 
expressed  in  terms  of  weight — 64  lb  (salt  water),  and  if 
the  number  of  square  feet  area  enclosed  between  any  two 
ordinates  is  multiplied  by  64  the  actual  buoyancy  of 
portion  of  ship  between  the  selected  ordinates  is  ex- 
pressed in  weight  terms.  Similar  conditions  prevail  for 
all  buoyancy  curves. 

5e.     Curves  of  Weight  Distribution 

The  longitudinal  distribution  of  construction,  equip- 
ment, lading  and  other  weights  of  ship  can  be  graphically 
illustrated  by  means  of  a  curve,  or  curves,  laid  out  in  a 
similar  manner,  but  in  place  of  using  cross-section  areas 
measures  for  curve  points  on  ordinates,  the  weights  of 
construction,  lading,  equipment,  etc.,  of  portion  of  hull 
between  each  two  ordinates  is  determined.  The  weight 
is  then  converted  into  its  equivalent  volume  (by  dividing 
by  64)  and  the  volume  measure  used  as  a  point  for  curve 
of  weight. 

Thus  the  weight  of  construction,  etc.,  of  portion  of 
hull  enclosed  between  No.  i  and  No.  2  ordinates  is  con- 
verted and  measurement  point  marked  on  ordinate 
erected  midway  between  No.  i  and  No.  2 ;  the  weight  of 
construction,  etc.,  of  portion  between  No.  2  and  No.  3  is 
converted  and  point  marked  on  an  ordinate  erected  mid- 
way between  No.  2  and  No.  3,  and  so  on  for  the  whole 
length.  A  series  of  points  for  laying  out  curve  of  weight 
is  thus  obtained,  and  a  curved  line  drawn  to  cut  all  points 
will  graphically  illustrate  the  longitudinal  distribution 
of  weights,  just  as  the  buoyancy  curve  graphically  illus- 
trates the  longitudinal  distribution  of  buoyancy.  Of 
course  as  weight  and  buoyancy  must  always  be  equal, 
the  area  enclosed  within  weight  curve  must  be  exactly 
the  same  as  that  enclosed  within  buoyancy  curve. 

It  is  usual  to  lay  out  two,  or  three,  curves  of  buoyancy 
and  of  weight,  one  being  for  ship  in  light  condition  with- 
out cargo,  coal  or  stores,  another  being  for  ship  with 
everything  on  board  except  cargo,  and  the  third  being 
for  ship  when  fully  loaded  with  cargo.  If  only  two 
sets  of  curves  are  laid  out,  omit  the  second. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


33 


On  Fig.  17  I  show  the  Fig.  16  curves  of  buoyancy 
and  on  same  base  Hne  is  laid  out  two  corresponding 
weight  curves,  the  solid-hned  curves  being  one  pair,  the 
dash-hned  ones  another. 

By  laying  out  the  curves  in  this  manner  it  is  an  easy 


matter  to  compare  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  buoy- 
ancy with  that  of  weight  and  determine  with  exactness  the 
points  where  buoyancy  or  weight  is  in  excess. 

Where  the  curve  of  buoyancy  line  of  a  pair  is  outside 
the  weight  curve  buoyancy  is  in  excess ;  where  the  two 
lines  cross  weight  and  buoyancy  are  equal  and  where 
weight  lines  is  outside  buoyancy  line  weight  is  in  excess. 

And  knowing  the  points  where  buoyancy  or  weight  is 
in  excess  a  curve  of  loads  can  be  laid  out  and  the  value 
of  the  longitudinal  bending  moment  at  any  cross-section 
determined. 

5f.     Curve  of  Loads 

A  curve  of  loads  is  laid  out  in  this  manner : 

The  same  length  of  base  line  and  ordinate  spacing 
used  for  weight  and  buoyancy  curves  is  marked  oflf  and 
then  the  distance  between  each  line  (buoyancy  and  weight 
curve  lines)  of  a  pair  is  measured  at  each  ordinate  and 
transferred  to  base  line,  measurements  taken  where 
buoyancy  is  in  excess  being  transferred  above  the  base 
line  and  those  where  weight  is  in  excess  below. 

On  Fig.  18  illustration  is  shown  the  curve  of  loads 
(two)  laid  out  from  measurements  taken  from  Fig.  17 
illustration. 

When  the  curve  of  loads  for  any  ship  floating  to  a 
certain  water-line  and  loaded  in  a  certain  manner  is 
plotted,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  calculate  the  longitudinal 
bending  moment  or  strain  at  any  part  of  the  hull  by 
ascertaining  the  excess  buoyancy  or  weight  at  the 
designated  location  and  multiplying  it  by  the  longitudinal 
distance  this  excess  is  from  the  point  the  strain  is  being 
calculated  from.  For  ships  afloat  in  still  water  the  point 
generally  selected  for  this  calculation  is  either  midship 
section,  bow,  or  stern. 

The  light  load  figures  for  ship  that  curves  of  loads 
laid  out  on  Fig.  18  belong  are  as  follows : 

For  first  80  feet'  from  bow,  weight  is  in  excess  400 
tons. 

For  the  70  feet  nearest  stern,  weight  is  in  excess  450 
tons. 


For  150  feet  amidships,  buoyancy  is  850  tons  in 
excess. 

This  condition  parallels  that  of  the  loaded  beam 
illustrated  by  Fig.  15b. 

While  the  loading  of  a  ship  with  cargo  increases 
weight  it  does  not  always  increase  .strains,  as  you  will 
see  by  referring  to  the  dash-lined  curve  of  loads,  which 
shows  that  by  loading  the  ship  strain  has  actually 
diminished. 

5g.     Longitudinal  Strains  Among  Waves 

When  a  ship  passes  into  disturbed  water,  the  move- 
ment of  the  waves  will  cause  ship  to  rise  and  fall  con- 
tinually and  this  up-and-down  movement  will  afifect  both 
the  size  and  character  of  bending  moments  and  will  also 
cause  rapid  changes  in  direction  of  strain  in  certain  parts 
of  ship. 

To  illustrate  the  effect  that  movement  of  waves  has 
on  a  ship,  I  will  take  two  extreme  positions,  the  first 
being  a  condition  in  which  wave  has  immersed  the  middle 
portion  of  ship  more  deeply  and  has  left  the  ends  partially 
unsupported,  and  the  second  being  a  condition  where 
waves  have  been  more  deeply  immersed  the  ends  and  left 
middle  portion  partially  unsupported. 

Figs.  19  and  20  illustrate  these  two  conditions. 


1 

[ J 

1 1 

1. 

~ 

— ■■ 

.,  " 

>           •> 

1 

1 

"~- — - 

,> 

*^ 

I ] 

L 

^ 

An  examination  of  the  Fig.  19  illustration  will  show 
the  great  change  that  takes  place  in  longitudinal  distri- 
bution of  weight  and  buoyancy  when  a  wave  lifts  a  ship 
on  its  crest,  or  when  a  ship  falls  into  a  hollow  between 
two  waves.  In  general,  when  a  ship  is  supported  on  the 
crest  of  a  wave  of  its  own  length  there  is  a  hogging  strain 
on  the  whole  structure,  the  maximum  hogging  moment 
being  at,  or  near  to,  midship  section  and  being,  approxi- 
mately, between  three  and  four  times  the  maximum  ex- 
perienced in  still  water.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a  ship  is 
in  the  condition  shown  on  Fig.  20  the  whole  structure  is 
under  a  sagging  strain  largely  in  excess  of  still-water 
maximum,  the  point  of  maximum  strain  being  at,  or  near 
to,  midship  section,  and  in  addition  to  this  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  these  excessive  hogging  and  sagging  strains 
alternate  at  intervals  of  a  few  seconds.  (In  a  360-foot 
ship  the  intervals  between  extremes  of  rising  and  falling 
when  waves  are  17  feet  high  is  approximately  4j^ 
seconds.) 


34 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


While  in  every  instance  strain  varies  with,  height  and 
length  of  waves  it  is  safe  to  assume,  for  the  purpose  of 
calculation,  that  the  maximum  longitudinal  bending 
moment  is  experienced  when  wave  length  is  equal  to 
length  of  ship  and  wave  height  between  one-twelfth  and 
one-fifteenth  of  length. 

When  longitudinal  distribution  of  weight  and  buoy- 
ancy of  a  ship  is  known  the  maximum  hogging  or  sagging 
bending  moment  at  any  point  for  still  water,  on  a  wave 
crest,  or  in  a  wave  hollow  can  be  determined  with  reason- 
able accuracy  by  using  this  formula : 


Weight  X  Length 


Numeral  for  length  of  ship  and  type 


Maximum 
bending  moment 
in  foct-tons. 


Weight  being  total  excess,  buoyancy  or  weight,  at 
selected  point. 

Length  being  distance  excess  is  from  point  of  support, 
or  from  point  where  buoyancy  and  weight  is  equalized. 

Numerals  vary  with  size  of  ship  and  conditions  of 
loading.  For  cargo  steamers  from  250  to  350  feet  in 
length  and  loaded  with  miscellaneous  cargo  in  all  holds 
the  numerals  are: 

Still  water    From  1 10  to  150 

On  wave  crest    From     25  to     40 

In  wave  hollow    ....  From     30  to     50 
(These  figures  are  approximate.) 

When  longitudinal  distribution  of  weight  and  buoy- 
ancy is  not  known  a  reasonably  accurate  formula  to  use 
for  computing  maximum  bending  moment  in  foot-tons, 
among  waves,  for  ships  of  ordinary  form  loaded  with 
miscellaneous  cargo  properly  stowed  throughout  length, 
wave  height  being  about  i/i5th  of  length,  is 
L  X  W 

:=  Bending  moment  in  foot-tons. 

20 

L    =  length    of  ship. 
W  =  weight  of  ship. 

When  making  calculations  for  longitudinal  strains  it 
is  assumed  that  the  ship  remains  upright.  We,  of  course, 
know  that  this  condition  is  not  possible  when  ship  is  in 
a  sea  because  both  rolling  and  pitching  occur  simultane- 
ously ;  but  to  calculate  strains  for  any  assigned  transverse 
inclination,  or  variation  between  upright  and  a  named 
degree,  would  entail  a  large  amount  of  labor  and  results 
obtained  would  be  of  very  little  practical  value  providing 
calculations  for  both  direct  transverse  and  longitudinal 
strains  are  made. 

It  must,  however,  be  kept  in  mind  that  when  a  ship 
is  poised  upon  the  crest  of  a  wave  and  inclined  trans- 
versely by  the  wave  forcing  one  side  of  stem  down  and 
supporting  the  opposite  side  at  bow,  there  is  a  twisting 
■  strain  put  on  structure  and  this  strain  must  be  resisted 


by  making  the  parts  afifected  sufficiently  strong  and 
fastening  them  securely.  In  a  very  large  number  of 
wooden  ships  structural  weakness,  especially  when  twist- 
ing, is  largely  due  to  improper  or  weak  fastening. 

Sh.     Transverse  Strains  When  a  Ship  is  Afloat 

Strains  of  this  kind  tend  to  produce  a  change  in 
transverse  form  and  are  largely  caused  by  oscillations 
and  rolling  movements  when  ship  is  in  a  sea,  and  by 
unequal  pressure  of  water  on  underwater  body.  Fig.  21 
is  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  this  transverse  water 
pressure. 


CENTRt    or    PRCS6URK. 


CENTRE  OF    PRESSURE. 


Fig.  21  shows  cross-section  of  a  ship  floating  upright 
in  still  water.  When  afloat  in  this  condition  weight 
pressure  acts  down  through  the  C.G.  point  and  up- 
buoyancy  pressure  acts  upwards  through  the  C.B.  point 
and  as  both  pressures  are  equal  and  act  along  the  same 
vertical  line  the  ship  is  at  rest. 

There  is,  however,  another  pressure,  or  strain,  that 
must  now  be  considered — i.e.,  the  horizontal  water  pres- 
sure acting  on  opposite  sides  of  ship  along  horizontal 
lines  and  having  the  center  of  pressure  located  about 
two-thirds  of  mean  draught  below  the  L.W.L.  This 
horizontal  pressure  tends  to  compress  the  hull,  or  change, 
the  transverse  form  of  ship  along  its  whole  length  being 
greatest  at  ends  where  sides  of  ship  are  nearly  vertical 
and  where  transverse  area  is  smallest. 

The  ordinary  framing  (transverse)  of  a  ship  is 
generally  strong  enough  to  withstand  this  pressure,  ex- 
cept at  bow,  where  it  is  usual  and  necessary  to  add 
structural  strength  to  prevent  the  pressure  causing  leaks 
in  wood  ships  and  "panting"  (in-and-out  movement  of 
plating)  in  steel  ones. 

In  wood  ships  the  forward  end  is  strengthened  by 
means  of  knees  and  pointers,  and  in  steel  ships  by  means 
of  additional  frames  called  panting  frames  or  beams. 

So  long  as  a  ship  remains  upright  and  in  still  water, 
transverse  pressure  strains,  while  much  greater  than 
longitudinal  pressure  ones  (they  are  about  eight  times 
greater),  are  not  excessive,  but  just  as  soon  as  the  ship 
inclines,  moves  ahead,  or  pitches  and  rolls  in  a  sea,  trans- 
verse water  pressure  and  the  forces  tending  to  alter  trans- 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


35 


verse  shape  greatly  increase.  The  strain  when  a  ship 
is  in  any  one  of  the  named  conditions  is  very  largely  a 
racking  one  that  is  continually  striving  to  alter  both  the 
transverse  and  longitudinal  form,  and  unless  the  framing, 
especially  at  connections  between  deck  beams  and  side 
framing,  is  amply  strong  and  properly  fastened  there 
will  be  some  change  of  form  or  loosening  of  knees  and 
framing  of  decks  and  bilges. 

When  a  ship's  righting  moment  is  known  the  approxi- 
mate racking  strain  at  any  transverse  inclination  can  be 
ascertained  by  making  use  of  this  rule: 

X  Righting  moment  for  inclination  ^  Moment 

j)2  j^  g2  of  racking  force  in  foot-tons. 

D  standing  for  depth  of  ship  from  upper  deck  to  keel. 

B  standing  for  breadth  of  ship  from  outside  to  out- 
side. 

The  period  of  oscillation,  or  time  required  for  a  ship 
to  make  one  complete  roll  from  port  to  starboard,  has  a 
very  great  influence  upon  total  strain  that  a  ship's  struc- 
ture has  to  withstand.  The  more  rapid  the  oscillations 
are  the  greater  the  number  of  times  the  racking  strain 
changes  its  direction  in  a  named  period  (such  as  one 
minute),  and  as  each  change  of  direction  (from  port  to 
starboard  and  vice-versa)  tends  to  produce  changes  in 
transverse  form,  it  is  advantageous  to  have  a  long  period 
of  oscillation.  A  deep-rolling  and  quick-acting  ship  al- 
ways requires  greatest  strength  of  hull  structure  to  with- 
stand strains.  So  also  does  one  in  which  the  proportion 
of  length  to  depth  is  excessive. 

5i.     Local  Strains 

By  local  strains  is  meant  strains  that  affect  some  par- 
ticular portion  of  the  hull  structure  and  which  are  due 
to  that  part  of  the  structure  being  subjected  to  some 
strain  that  is  local  in  its  effect.  For  instance,  if  a  heavy 
or  unusual  load  is  concentrated  upon  some  part  of  the 
hull  structure  (a  deck  winch,  for  instance),  the  strain 
due  to  this  load  will  be  local. 

Thrust  of  a  screw  propeller  produces  a  local  strain 
on  that  part  of  the  ship  to  which  the  thrust  block  founda- 
tion is  attached. 

The  downward  thrust  of  a  mast  produces  a  consid- 
erable local  strain  at  and  near  to  part  of  hull  where  mast 
is  stepped. 

Wind  pressure  on  sails  is  transferred  to  spars  and 
rigging  and  then  to' hull  structure  where  masts  are  sup- 
ported and  rigging  fastened. 


Chain  plates  produce  local  strains  on  parts  of  struc- 
ture where  they  are  fastened. 

Engines  and  boiler  weights  are  concentrated  along  a 
short  portion  of  ship's  length  and  cause  local  strains  of 
great  importance.  One  of  the  most  effective  methods 
of  overcoming  strains  of  this  kind  is  to  distribute  these 
permanent  weights  over  as  large  a*  portion  of  hull  as 
possible  by  extending  the  foundation  structure  over  a 
much  greater  (length  and  width)  area  than  weight  oc- 
cupies. 

53.     Strains  Due  to  Propulsion  by  Sails  or  Steam 

In  nearly  every  instance  strains  due  to  propulsion  are 
local  and  can  best  be  overcome  by  adding  strength  to  the 
parts  of  structure  in  the  locality  where  strains  are 
greatest. 

When  a  ship  is  propelled  by  sail  power  the  effective 
wind  pressure  acts  both  longitudinally  and  transversely, 
the  longitudinal  thrust  acting  principally  in  driving  the 
ship  ahead  and  the  transverse  thrust  acting  largely  upon 
the  structure  of  ship  and  tending  to  r^ck  the  structure, 
especially  at  points  where  masts  are  stepped  and  rigging 
secured  to  hull. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  strengthen  any  part  of 
hull  where  a  mast  is  secured  or  supported,  or  where  any 
standing  rigging  is  fastened. 

In  the  case  of  propulsion  by  a  screw  propeller  the 
thrust  is  delivered  in  the  direction  ship  will  travel  and 
therefore  there  will  be  no  transverse  strain,  except  in 
cases  when  hull  vibrations  are  set  up  by  unbalanced  mov- 
ing parts  of  machinery  or  by  the  period  of  engine  vibra- 
tion not  being  properly  tuned  to  hull  vibration  period. 

Every  structure  has  a  natural  period  of  vibration  and 
in  a  ship  this  period  is  governed  by  the  structural  arrange- 
ment, weight  and  distribution  of  material.  In  an  engine 
the  period  of  vibration  is  governed  by  the  balancing  of 
moving  parts,  and  the  period  of  revolution.  If  the  revolu- 
tion period  of  engine  approximates  in  regularity  to  the 
hull  structural  vibration  period,  hull  vibrations  will  be 
very  noticeable;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  determine 
the  natural  period  of  hull  vibration  and  then  have  engine 
revolutions  fixed  at  a  number  that  will  not  be  a  muhiple 
of  the  hull  period.  This  can  nearly  always  be  done  by 
selecting  a  propeller  that  will  allow  engine  to  turn  at  a 
number  of  revolutions  that  will  not  be  a  multiple  of  the 
hull  revolution  period. 

Unbalanced  propellers  will  set  up  vibrations  similar 
to  those  produced  by  unbalanced  moving  parts  of  engine. 


Chapter  VI 

Estimating  and  Converting 


6a.     Bills  of  Material 
The  usual  procedure  in  a  modern  shipyard  is  to  first 
prepare  detailed  bills  of  materials  on  which  is  specified 
these  things: 

The  names  of  principal  parts  of  ship. 
The  kind,  quantity,  quality  and  dimensions  of  ma- 
terials needed  for  each  part. 
The   order   in   which    materials    are    needed    and 
date  they  should  be  delivered. 
On  the  bills  of  material  is  listed  all  lumber,  fastenings, 
fittings,  equipment,  rigging,  machinery,  etc.,  required  for 
the  job,  and  in  every  case  quantities  named  should  in- 
clude a  proper  allowance  for  wastage  during  converting 
or  manufacturing. 

I  say  bills  of  material,  because  it  is  more  satisfactory 
to  make  up  a  separate  bill  of  material  for  each  principal 
division  of  the  work  or  for  each  production  department. 
Thus  one  bill  would  cover  lumber,  fastenings,  fittings, 
etc.,  for  the  hull  construction  department ;  another  would 
cover  materials  and  equipment  for  pipefitting  and  plumb- 
ing department ;  another  material  for  engineering  depart- 
ment; another  materials  required  by  rigging  and  sail- 
makers'  department ;  another  materials  for  painting 
department. 

Specifying  each  department's  materials  separately  sim- 
plifies checking  quantities  and  keeping  track  of  deliveries. 

Quantities  are  generally  calculated  from  plans,  speci- 
fications and  mould  loft  measurements,  and  as  the  work 
must  be  very  accurately  done  the  man  assigned  to  the  job 
should  be  a  competent  estimator  and  have  a  fair  knowl- 
edge of  ship  construction  work. 

The  usual  practice  is  for  the  estimator  to  enter  on  his 
estimating  sheets  every  needed  item  of  material  piece  by 
piece.  The  sheets  then  go  to  stock  keeper,  who  checks 
off  items  that  can  be  supplied  from  stock  and  then  passes 
the  sheets  along  to  purchasing  department,  where  items 
that  cannot  be  supplied  from  stock  are  listed  and  ordered. 

In  the  next  column  1  give  headings  of  a  very  satis- 
factory estimating  sheet  for  use  in  a  large  shipyard. 

A  filled-in  copy  of  Sheet  No.  i  is  attached  to  each 
department's  material  list  and  to  it  is  attached  filled-in 
sheets  having  headings  as  given  in  Sheet  No.  2. 

Copies  of  estimates  should  be  sent  to  stock  keepers, 
to  purchasing  department  and  to  the  head  of  each  depart- 
ment, and  it  should  be  the  duty  of  each  department  head 
to  report  when  any  item  of  material  is  not  delivered  on 
date  wanted,  and  of  the  purchasing  and  stock  keeping 
departments  to  enter  dates  ordered  and  received  on  all 


Sheet  No.  i  Date  

Name  of  Firm   •  • 

Quantity  estimating  sheet  for  ship  No Designed  by 

Contract  No Signed  on 

Date  set  for  delivery   

The  following  dates  have  beei  set  for  the  named  divisions  of 
work  to  be  completed : 

Keel  laid    Framed  up  

Planked    and  caulked    

Deck  laid   and   caulked    

Joiner  work  completed  

Engines  and  boilers  in  place Condensers  in  place 

Auxiliary  machinery  in  place Tanks  in  place 

Pipe  fitting  completed .and  covered    

Electric  wiring  completed  ....  and  tested  

Plumbing  completed  and  tested  

Deck  fittings   and   equipment  in   place 

Spars,  booms  and  rigging  completed   

Steering  gear  and  navigation  equipment  in  place 

Painting  completed    

Sails    bent    

Vessel  will  be  launched  on    

Trial   trip  will   be   run   on 

Delivery  will  be  made   At 

As  these  dates  have  been  set  after  consultation  with  heads  of 
departments,  they  must  be  adhered  to  unless  changed  by  written 
authority  of  the  President  of  Company. 


Sheet  No.  2 Ship  No. 

Material  estimate   for    


.Date 


.Department 


Date  Date 

Ordered    Wanted 


Quantity 


Desctiption 


Uied 
for 


Date 
Received 


Checked  by 


Estimator 


department  copies  of  estimates.     Thus  a  very  satisfactory 
cross  check  is  kept  of  delays,  should  any  occur. 

In  all  cases  the  estimated  wanted  date  should  be  fixed 
several  days  ahead  of  actual  requirements. 

6b.     Selecting  Timber  Required  For  the  Construc- 
tion OF  A  Ship 

The  first  work  of  the  shipbuilder  is  to  "lay  down"  the 
lines  and  construction  details  full  size,  and  make  the 
full-sized  templates  (moulds)  required  by  the  converters, 
ship-carpenters,  and  erectors,  and  while  this  work  is 
going  on  the  necessary  timber  can  be  selected  and  got 
ready.  Selecting  timber  should  be  done  with  care  and 
by  men  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  ship  construc- 
tion and  the  grading  of  lumber. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


37 


Timber  used  in  a  modern  shipyard  is  usually  delivered 
in  these  conditions : 

(a)  In  pieces  squared  on  four  sides  to  dimensions 
named.  This  is  termed  squared  material  (dimen- 
sion stock)  and  is  principally  used  for  keels,  keel- 
sons, deadwood,  and  pieces  that  can  be  advan- 
tageously got  out  of  heavy  straight  dimension 
material.  When  ordering  material  of  this  kind, 
it  is  necessary  to  state  length,  width  and  thick- 
ness of  each  piece  and  quality,  or  grade  of  ma- 
terial   desired. 

Shipyards  usually  keep  a  stock  of  standard  di- 
mension squared  material  on  hand — yellow  pine, 
fir,  oak. 

(b)  In  pieces,  or  planks,  sawed  to  named  thickness, 
the  edges  of  pieces  being  left  with  the  natural 
taper  or  curve  of  tree  intact.  Material  of  this 
kind  is  called  "flitch  cut"  and  it  is  very  advanta- 
geous to  have  such  material  for  frames,  floors, 
futtocks,  stem,  planking,  and  pieces  that  have  to 
be  got  out  to  some  curved  shape,  because  the 
natural  taper  or  curve  will  materially  reduce 
waste  and  enable  the  shipbuilder  to  avoid  a  great 
deal  of  short  grain  (cross  grain)  that  is  always 
present  when  a  curved  piece  is  got  out  of  a 
straight  plank.  Material  of  this  kind  is  generally 
ordered  "log  run"  and  therefore  it  is  not  graded 
for  quality. 

(c)  Planks  edged  and  cut  to  named  thickness.  Use- 
ful for  planking,  ceiling,  decking  and  in  places 
where  long  straight  planks  are  needed.  Material 
of  this  kind  is  cut  to  specifications  as  to  thickness, 
width,  length  and  grade,  or  quality. 

(d)  In  pieces  planed  and  finished  ready  for  use. 
Under  this  heading  is  included  flooring,  joiner- 
work  material,  matched  material,  etc. 

(e)  In  pieces  sawed  to  designated  thickness  and  hav- 
ing the  natural  curve  of  roots  and  butt  portion  of 
tree  intact.  Material  of  this  kind  is  termed 
natural  knees,  and  is  usually  either  oak,  spiucc, 
pine  or  hackmatack.  Knees  are  usually  ordered 
by  thickness  and  as  each  piece  has  curve  of  root 
and  butt  of  tree  intact,  it  is  necessary  to  designate 
the  approximate  angle  of  knee  required.  Thus 
if  knees  having  less  than  a  right  angle  is  desired, 
"in"  angle  knees  is  designated.  Knees  having 
more  than  a  right  angle  are  termed  "out"  angle 
knees. 

Wooden  ship-building  is  naturally  a  wasteful  industry, 
because  of  the  large  number  of  pieces  that  have  to  be  cut 
with  some  curvature,  or  taper.  Therefore,  it  naturally 
follows  that  the  man  in  charge  of  the  selection  of  ma- 
terial holds  a  most  responsible  and  important  position, 
because  upon  the  judgment  and  skill  with  which  his 
selection  is  made  depends,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
strength,  and  durability  of  the  ship,  and  economy  of  ma- 


terial. A  good  converter  can  save  material,  reduce  cost 
of  labor  and  thus  add  many  dollars  to  a  firm's  profit, 
while  a  bad  converter  can  so  increase  cost  of  material 
and  labor  that  profits  will  vanish.  I  mention  this  because 
I  know  of  instances  in  which  yard  managers  have,  through 
mistaken  economy,  looked  upon  the  selection  of  material 
for  the  various  parts  of  a  ship  as  being  of  secondary  im- 
portance, and  a  matter  that  can  be  properly  attended  to 
by  an  ordinary  yard  foreman  or  sawmill  leading  man. 
It  is  false  economy  to  do  this,  and  I  know  through  ex- 
perience that  it  pays  to  have  a  man  in  charge  of  this  work 
who  has  a  good  knowledge  of  ship  construction,  a  fair 
knowledge  of  mould  loft  work,  and  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  timber  and  sawmill  work. 

6c.    Converting 

By  converting  timber  is  meant  selecting  the  timber 
and  planks  for  each  piece  and  part  of  ship,  marking  out 
shape  and  form  of  the  pieces,  and  getting  them  sawed, 
or  machined,  as  near  as  possible  to  required  shape. 
Therefore,  the  material  has  to  pass  through  three  different 
departments  before  it  is  ready  for  the  ship-carpenters. 

1st.- — -The  men  who  select  the  materials. 

2d. — The  men  who  mark  out  the  materials  to  required 
shape. 

3d. — The  men  who  actually  machine  or  saw  the  ma- 
terial to  shape. 

Here  are  a  few  things  that  should  always  be  kept  in 
mind  by  the  men  who  select  and  convert  timber : 

Waste  material  should  be  kept  to  a  minimum  by  select- 
ing logs  and  planks  as  near  as  possible  of  the  required 
dimensions,  and  by  carefully  considering  before  a  log  or 
plank  is  cut  whether  the  waste  from  it  can,  or  cannot  be 
used  for  some  other  part. 

Every  log,  or  plank,  should  be  carefully  inspected  for 
defects  before  any  work  is  done  on  it,  and  if  defects  exist 
the  templates  should  be  laid  out  on  the  material  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  more  serious  ones  are  cut  out  or  left 
in  a  position  on  completed  piece  that  will  not  detract  from 
strength  or  durability. 

In  all  cases  when  it  is  practicable,  timber  should  be 
so  converted  that  the  end  of  a  log  or  plank  that  was 
nearest  the  top  of  tree  will  be  placed  in  ship  at  the  part 
in  which  decay  starts  quickest ;  as,  for  instance,  the  top 
of  the  log  from  which  stern-post  is  sawed  should  be 
placed  uppermost,  as  the  butt  will  be  better  preserved 
when  entirely  immersed  in  water. 

In  converting  timber,  particular  care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  an  excessive  amount  of  cross 
grain  located  where  it  will  detract  from  strength,  or  where 
it  will  not  be  supported  or  reinforced  by  other  adjoining 
pieces  of  material. 

In  getting  out  futtocks  of  frame  timbers  cross  grain 
of  one  piece  can  nearly  always  be  strengthened  and  re- 
inforced by  straight  grain  of  adjoining  piece. 

Scarphs  should  never  be  cut  until  it  is  ascertained  that 


38 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


the  piece  of  timber  is  fit  for  the  intended  use.  It  is 
therefore  advisable  to  cut  each  piece  of  material  to  shape 
before  cutting  or  forming  a  scarph. 

No  heart  shake,  check  or  knot  should  be  located  at  or 
near  to  a  scarph  unless  fastenings  are  located  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  will  tend  to  close  the  defect  and  prevent 
it  detracting  from  strength  of  the  finished  piece. 

In  a  modern  shipyard  every  eflfort  should  be  made  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  hand  labor  to  a  minimum  by  using 
power  and  labor-saving  machines.  The  handling  of 
heavy  timber  should  be  done  by  means  of  electric  timber 


trucks  and  self-propelling  hoists,  and  the  shaping  of  the 
many  pieces  that  enter  into  the  construction  of  a  vessel 
should  be  very  largely  done  by  means  of  machinery. 
Nearly  every  piece  of  the  transverse  frame  of  a  vessel 
can  be  sawed,  shaped  and  beveled  by  machinery.  Plank- 
ing, decking,  ceiling  and  nearly  every  longitudinal  piece 
of  material  can  also  be  shaped  and  beveled  by  machinery, 
all  joinerwork  material  can  be  machined  ready  for  as- 
sembling, fastening  holes  can  be  drilled  with  the  aid  of 
machinery,  and  in  addition  to  this  the  actual  caulking  of 
planking  and  deck  seams  can  be  largely  done  with  the 
aid  of  caulking  machines. 


Chapter  VII 

Joints     and     Scarphs 


In  ship  construction  it  is  necessary  to  join  together  a 
number  of  pieces  of  wood  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
strength  of  joints  will  at  least  equal  the  strength  of  ma- 
terial used. 

The  meeting  place  of  two  pieces  of  wood  is  called 
the  joint  and  the  joint  is  circumscribed  by  the  lines  which 
mark  the  intersection  of  the  faces  of  one  piece  with  the 
other. 

The  simplest  and  easiest  joints  to  make  are  those  in 
which  the  bearing  faces  are  planes  of  the  same  size  and 
shape  in  relation  to  the  planes  of  the  axes. 

The  putting  together  of  two  pieces  of  wood  may  be 
done  in  three  ways: 

1st.- — They  may  meet  and  form  an  angle. 

2d. — Two  pieces  may  be  joined  in  a  right  line  by 
lapping  and  indenting  the  meeting  ends  on  each  other. 
This  is  called  scarphing. 

3d. — The  two  pieces  may  be  joined  longitudinally,  the 
joint  being  secured  by  covering  it  on  opposite  sides  by 
pieces  of  wood,  or  metal,  bolted  to  both  beams.  This  is 
called  fishing. 

7a.     Joints  That  Form  an  Angle 

Should  two  pieces  of  wood  that  meet  and  form  an 
angle  be  joined  by  simple  contact  of  the  end  of  one  piece 
with  its  bed  on  the  other,  the  pieces  are  said  to  abut, 
and  the  joint  is  called  a  plain  joint.     This  method  of 


joining  does  not  prevent  one  piece  sliding  on  the  other, 
unless  it  is  fastened  with  nails  or  bolts,  and  even  when 
these  are  used  the  joint  will  be  a  very  insecure  one. 

Plate  VIIa  Illustrations 

Fig.  I  shows  the  simplest  means  of  obtaining  resist- 
ance to  sliding  by  inserting  the  piece  C  in  notches  cut 
in  both  pieces.  On  the  upper  view  of  joint  is  shown 
the  proper  mode  of  securing  joint  by  a  bolt.  A  stronger 
but  more  costly  method  of  joining  is  the  mortise  and 
tenon,  and  as  this  is  the  principle  of  a  large  number  of 
joints,  I  will  describe  it  at  length. 

The  simplest  case  of  a  mortise  and  tenon  joint  is 
when  two  pieces  of  wood  meet  at  right  angles.  Such 
a  joint  is  shown  on  Fig.  2. 

The  tenon  is  formed  at  the  end  of  one  piece  in  the 
direction  of  its  fibres  and  a  mortise  of  exactly  the  same 
size  and  form  as  the  tenon  is  hollowed  in  the  face  of  the 
other  piece.  The  sides  of  the  mortise  are  called  the 
cheeks,  and  the  square  parts  of  the  piece  from  which 
the  tenon  projects,  and  which  rest  on  the  cheeks,  are 
called  the  shoulders.  As  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise  and 
the  tenon  are  exposed  to  the  same  amount  of  strain, 
it  follows  that  each  should  be  equal  to  one-third  the 
thickness  of  timbers  in  which  they  are  made. 

The  length  of  a  tenon  should  equal  the  depth  of  the 
mortise,  so  that  its  end  will  press  on  bottom  of  mortise 


Plate   Vila 


40 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Plato  vnij 


when  shoulders  bear  on  the  cheeks.  In  practice  this 
perfection  of  joining  cannot  be  obtained,  so  the  tenon 
is  generally  made  slightly  shorter  than  depth  of  mortise, 
thus  enabling  the  shoulders  to  press  closely  upon  cheeks. 

When  a  mortise  and  tenon  joint  is  cut  and  put  to- 
gether, the  pieces  are  generally  secured  by  a  key  or 
treenail.  The  key  is  generally  a  round  one  having  a 
diameter  equal  to  about  one-fourth  the  thickness  of  the 
tenon  and  it  is  usually  inserted  at  a  distance  of  about 
one-third  the  length  of  tenon  from  the  shoulder. 

The  key,  however,  is  never  depended  upon  as  a  means 
of  securing  the  joint,  because  joints  of  this  kind  should 
be  so  closely  fitted  that  they  will  hold  together  without 
the  aid  of  key. 

The  foregoing  describes  a  simple  tenoned  joint  when 
the  pieces  to  the  joint  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

When  the  pieces  to  be  joined  are  not  at  right  angles, 
a  more  complicated  method  of  tenoning  must  be  used. 

Fig.  1. 

•AAA i^h Jk Al. 


L 


I 


1 


~% 


Fig.  2. 


eS, 


Fig.  3. 


-mr 


t*. 


Plate  Vlld 


This  method  is  shown  on  Fig.  3. 

You  will  note  that  the  cheeks  of  mortise  are  cut 
down  to  form  an  abutment  or  notch,  thus  increasing  the 
bearing  surface  and  adding  to  the  resistance  to  slipping. 

Plate  VIIb  Illustrations 

Fig.  4  shows  other  forms  of  this  kind  of  joint,  and 
on  Fig.  5  I  show  methods  of  adding  to  resistance  to 
slippage  by  using  straps  and  bolts.  Note  that  a  steel 
wedge  is  inserted  into  opening  of  strap  (a). 

7b.       SCARPHS 

In  ship-building  it  is  often  necessary  to  join  timbers 
in  the  direction  of  their  length  in  order  to  secure  scant- 
lings of  sufficient  longitudinal  dimensions.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  maintain  the  same  depth  and  width  in  the 
lengthened  beam,  the  mode  of  joining  is  called  scarphing. 
Scarphing  can  be  performed  in  a  number  of  dififerent 
ways,  but  in  all  cases  it  is  very  necessary  to  consider  the 
direction  of  strain  to  which  the  lengthened  beam  will 
be  subjected,  whether  longitudinal  or  transverse,  and  to 
select  the  method  that  will  give  the  maximum  resistance 
in  the  direction  from  which  the  strain  comes. 

The  following  illustrations  will  serve  to  explain  a 
number  of  excellent  methods  of  scarphing  and  lengthen- 
ing beams. 

Plate  VIIc  Illustrations 

Fig.  6  illustrates  a  plain  scarphed  joint.  The  end?  of 
each  piece  of  timber  are  cut  obliquely  and  lapped  and 
then  secured  by  bolts  that  pass  through  plates  or  washers 
to  prevent  the  screwing  up  of  the  nuts  injuring  the  wood. 

The  strength  of  a  scarph  of  this  kind  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  holding  power  of  the  bolts  and  the  re- 
sistance to  slipping  is  very  slight. 

Fig.  7  shows  a  similar  scarph,  but  as  the  ends  are  in- 
dented and  a  key  is  inserted  through  opening  cut  in 
timbers  midway  from  ends  of  scarph,  the  resistance  to 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


41 


l^^^tT" 

<? 

i'       :    ^ 

H        L 

▼ 

V 

II 

< 

s 

1_ 


/J^ 


Plato   VHo 


slipping  is  very  greatly  increased.     This  scarph  is  an  im- 
provement over  Fig.  6. 

Fig.  8  illustrates  a  scarph  that  is  stronger  than  Fig.  7. 
Here  the  indentions  are  placed  at  ends  and  center  and 
key  is  also  used.  With  number  of  fastenings  shown  on 
illustrations  the  relative  strength  of  the  three  scarphs  is: 

Fig.  7  is  one  and  one-quarter  times  the  strength  of 
Fig.  6. 

Fig.  8  is  two  and  one-half  times  the  strength  of 
Fig.  6. 

Figs.  9  to  14  show  other,  more  complicated,  methods 
of  scarphing  that  can  be  used  when  maximum  strength  of 
scarph  is  desired. 

Figs.  15  and  16  show  two  views  of  combined  ver- 
tical and  horizontal  scarphs,  and  Figs.  17  and  18  illustrate 
methods  of  lengthening  beams  by  inserting  a  short  piece 
between  two  longer  pieces. 

When  a  beam  does  not  have  to  be  same  thickness 
throughout,    the    lengthening    can    be    done    by    simply 


butting   the  pieces   and     lacing   pieces    of    timber   each 
side,  bolting  and  keying  the  four  pieces  together. 

Plate  VIId  Illustrations 

Fig.  I  shows  a  plain  fished  joint. 

Fig.  2  shows  an  indented  fished  joint. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  keyed  fished  joint.    A,  B  are  keys. 

This  method  of  joining  timbers  is  called  fishing. 

The  timber  used  for  the  deck  framing  of  a  ship  is 
seldom  of  sufficient  length  to  permit  the  use  of  one- 
piece  beams,  so  each  beam  and  timber  is  generally  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  pieces  scarphed  together. 

Plate  VIIe  Illustrations 

On  Plate  Vile  is  shown  methods  of  scarphing  deck 
beams. 

Figs.  21  to  23  show  accepted  methods  of  scarphing 
beams  used  for  deck  framing  of  vessels. 


42 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Plate    Vile 


Fig.  21  illustrates  how  a  two-piece  beam  is  put  to- 
gether, the  upper  view  being  a  side  or  moulded  view  and 
the  lower  one  a  view  as  seen  from  above.  A  scarph  of 
this  kind  is  usually  made  one-third  the  length  of  the 
whole  beam. 

In  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  beam  out 
of  three  pieces,  the  scarph  is  made  in  the  manner  shown 
by  Fig.  22.  The  length  of  scarph  is  usually  about  one- 
fourth  the  length  of  beam. 

Fig.  23  shows  an  exceptionally  strong  method  of 
scarphing  beams.  The  keys  in  a  scarph  of  this  kind  are 
of  iron  or  steel  and  must  be  tapered  and  fitted  snugly, 
and  the  lips  of  scarph  must  be  cut  square  to  the  moulded 
edge  of  beam.  The  length  of  this  kind  of  scarph  need 
not  be  more  than  one-fifth  or  one-sixth  length  of  beam. 

7c.    Dovetailing,  Halving 

Fig.  16  (Plate  Vllf)  shows  two  pieces  of  timber 
joined  together  at  right  angles  by  a  dovetailed  notch. 
As  to  dovetails  in  general,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that 
they  should  never  be  depended  upon  for  joints  exposed 


to  a  strain,  as  a  very  small  degree  of  shrinkage  will  allow 
the  joint  to  draw  considerably. 

Figs.  17  and  18  (Plate  Vllf)  show  modes  of  mortis- 
ing wherein  the  tenon  has  one  side  dovetailed  or  notched, 
and  the  corresponding  side  of  the  mortise  also  dovetailed 
or  notched.  The  mortise  is  made  of  sufficient  width  to 
admit  the  tenon,  and  the  dovetailed  or  notched  faces  are 
brought  in  contact  by  driving  home  a  wedge  c.  Of 
these.  Fig.  18  is  the  best. 

Fig.  19  (Plate  Vllf)  shows  the  halving  of  the  tim- 
bers crossing  each  other.  Fig.  20  shows  a  joint  simi- 
lar to  those  in  Nos.  17  and  18,  but  where  the  one  timber 
b  is  oblique  to  the  other  a. 

Fig.  21  (Plate  Vllf). — Nos.  i  and  2  show  a  mode  of 
notching  a  horizontal  beam  into  the  side  of  an  inclined  one 
by  a  dovetailed  joint.  The  general  remark  as  to  dove- 
tailed joints  applies  with  especial  force  to  this  example. 

7d.    An  Explanation  of  Coaked  Scarphs 

The  word  coaked  refers  to  a  method  of  increasing 
strength  of  scarphs  by  preventing  the  joint  from  moving 
sideways  or  endways.    A  coak  is  a  rectangular  or  round 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


43 


piece  of  hard  wood  laid  into  the  surface  of  the  two  pieces 
of  timber  that  are  scarphed  together  in  such  a  manner 
that  one-half  of  depth  of  coak  will  be  in  each  piece  of 
timber.  On  Fig.  33  (page  49)  is  shown  a  properly  coaked 
keel  scarph,  and  you  will  note  that  by  the  addition  of 
coaks  the  resistance  to  sliding  has  been  greatly  increased 
and  the  holding  strength  of  bolts  has  also  been  increased. 


In  the  days  when  wooden  ships  were  built  in  large  num- 
bers all  the  principal  keel,  stem,  stern,  keelsons  and  frame 
scarphs  were  coaked,  but  in  these  days  coaking  is  seldom 
used,  and  in  ignoring  the  advantages  of  coaking  a  scarph 
I  believe  the  shipbuilders  are  making  a  serious  error. 
Round  coaks  are  used  up  to  3  inches'in  diameter  and  rec- 
tangular ones  up  to  3  inch  X  6  inch. 


Tig 


(a.JO. 


/^''./S/AA 


T 


\ 


i  i 


Jk 


Fin.n. 


Vv^'N/' 


>    i. 


j£L 


Fiq.  18. 


v/^xAV^ 


Plate    Vllf 


Chapter  VIII 

Describing  the  Different  Parts  of  a  Ship  Constructed  of  Wood 


In  this  chapter  I  shall  describe  and  illustrate  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  a  wooden  ship's  construction,  explaining 
the  position  each  occupies,  its  duty,  and  how  it  is  shaped 
and  fastened. 

8a.     Explanatory 

The  longitudinal  form  of  a  vessel  is  determined  by 
timbers  called  the  keel,  the  stem  and  the  stem-post.  The 
stem,  which  is  at  the  foremost  extremity,  is  supported  by 
its  combination  with  the  keel,  which  is  the  lowest  part  of 
the  structure,  by  other  timbers  lying  in  its  concave  part, 
called  the  apron,  and  the  stemson ;  the  apron  and  stemson 
unite  with  timbers  called  the  deadwood  and  with  the 
keelson,  which  timbers  strengthen  and  give  support  to 
the  keel;  the  stern-post,  which  is  at  the  aftermost  ex- 
tremity, is  supported  by  timbers  called  the  inner  stern- 
post  and  the  sternson ;  and  these  timbers  likewise  form 
a  junction  with  the  keelson,  deadwood,  and  keel,  so  that 
a  mutual  connection  is  kept  up  by  them,  to  preserve  the 
longitudinal  form. 

Transversely,  the  form  is  given  by  assemblages  of 
timbers  placed  vertically,  called  frames.  The  lowest  tim- 
bers of  the  frames,  called  floors,  lie  between  the  keel  and 
keelson,  extending  equally  on  each  side;  the  other  tim- 
bers of  the  frames,  called  futtocks  and  top-timbers,  con- 
nect keel  to  the  timbers  that  form  the  upper  boundary 
of  the  structure,  which  are  called  gunwales  and  plank- 
sheers. 

The  longitudinal  form  is  further  maintained,  and 
strengthened,  by  exterior  and  interior  linings,  called  plank- 
ing, and  by  interior  binders,  called  shelf-pieces,  which 
are  united  to  the  frames.  The  exterior  lining  or  planking 
which  is  connected  with,  and  covers  the  whole  surface  of 
the  frame,  is  made  watertight,  to  preserve  the  buoyancy 
of  the  body.  The  two  sides  are  connected  and  sustained 
at  their  proper  distance  apart  by  timbers  lying  horizon- 
tally, called  beams ;  these  are  firmly  united  to  the  sides 
of  the  ship.  Platforms,  called  decks,  are  laid  on  the 
beams,  on  which  the  cabins  for  the  accommodation  of 
officers  and  ship's  company  are  placed. 


The  beams  are  so  disposed  on  the  different  decks  that 
their  sides  may  form  the  hatchways  and  ladderways, 
which  are  the  communications  from  one  deck  to  another, 
and  to  the  hold ;  and  to  give  support  to  pieces  fixed  to 
them,  called  mast  partners,  for  wedging  and  securing 
the  masts.  The  beams  on  the  different  decks  are  placed 
immediately  over  one  another,  in  order  that  pillars  may 
be  placed  between  them,  to  continue  to  the  upper  decks 
the  support  given  to  lower  beams  by  pillars  resting  on 
keelson. 

The  deck  beams  are  secured  to  the  side  by  large  tim- 
bers, called  shelf-pieces,  on  which  the  beams  lie,  and  to 
other  large  timbers  called  waterways,  lying  on  ends  of  the 
beams,  both  well  fastened  to  the  ship's  side.  Knees  under 
the  beams,  and  steel  plates  bolted  to  the  side,  give  addi- 
tional security. 

Below  the  lower  deck,  in  two-decked  ships  and  up- 
wards, upon  the  inside  planking,  were  formerly  placed 
interior  frames,  in  the  full  part  of  the  body,  extending 
from  the  keelson  upwards  to  lower  deck  beams,  called 
bends  or  riders;  the  lowest  timber,  called  the  floor  rider, 
extended  equally  on  each  side  of  the  middle ;  the  other 
timbers,  according  to  their  position  with  this,  were  called, 
first,  second,  and  third  futtock  riders.  These  timbers 
were  intended  to  support  the  body  against  the  upward 
pressure  should  the  ship  ground. 

These  riders  are  in  some  cases  omitted,  diagonal  frames 
being  introduced  on  the  inside  of  frame  timbers,  form- 
ing a  system  of  braces  and  trusses,  that  takes  their  place. 
The  diagonal  framing  was  brought  into  use  to  prevent 
ships  hogging  through  the  unequal  vertical  pressures  of 
the  weights  downwards,  and  of  water  upwards,  in 
different  parts  of  a  ship's  length. 

At  the  present  time,  a  greatly  improved  method  of 
diagonal  framing  is  used.  This  method  calls  for  the  use 
of  flat  steel  straps  on  the  outside  of  frames,  the  straps 
being  let  in  flush  and  placed  to  cross  the  frames  and 
each  other  at  an  inclination  of  about  45°  from  the  per- 
pendicular.    In  addition  to  this,  steel  plate  riders  and  a 


ng.  25 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


45 


Fig.   26 


Steel  arch  are  worked  on  inside  of  frames,  the  arch 
extending  from  near  deadwood  forward  up  to  main  deck 
beams  amidships  and  to  stern-post  near  deadwood  aft. 
This  arch  is  securely  fastened  to  all  the  frames  it  crosses. 
Figs.  25,  26,  27  and  28  show  construction  details  of  a 
wooden  ship,  the  principal  parts  being  marked  for  identi- 
fication. 

8b.     Keel.     Description 

The  keel  is  the  principal  longitudinal  timber  of  a  ship 
and  is  the  first  construction  timber  to  set  on  the  building 
slip  blocks.  A  ship's  keel  is  usually  parallel  sided  except 
for  a  short  distance  near  the  forward  and  after  ends, 
where  the  sided  dimension  is  reduced  to  that  of  stem 
and  stern  post. 

The  sided  and  moulded  (S.  &  M.)  dimensions  of  keel 
required  for  a  ship  can  be  ascertained,  when  ship's  ton- 
nage  is   known,   by   referring  to   Table   of   Dimensions 


issued  by  classification  society  under  whose  rules  the 
ship  is  being  built,  (see  Tables  3b  to  3f)  or  it  can  be 
calculated,  when  dimensions  of  ship  are  known,  by  using 
formula  at  end  of  Chapter  III. 

8b\     Material  For  Keels 

The  keel  of  a  ship  should  be  made  of  selected  straight- 
grained,  well-seasoned  timber  of  a  kind  that  is  durable 
when  immersed  in  water,  and  that  has  sufficient  tensile 
strength  to  withstand  the  maximum  keel  strain. 

The  relative  durability  and  strength  of  diflferent  kinds 
of  woods  used  for  keels  is  given  in  Tables  2  and  3. 

In  U.  S.  A.  at  present  time,  Douglas  fir,  and  long- 
leaf  yellow  pine,  are  the  two  most  readily  procurable 
woods  suitable  for  keels  of  large  ships.  Timbers  of  these 
trees  can  be  obtained  in  long  lengths  and  of  better  quality 
than  other  more  highly  rated  (by  insurance  companies) 
woods,  and  in  addition  to  this  these  woods  do  not  shrink 


HALF  -   BEAM 


HATC  H    WAV      BEAM 


Fig.   27 


46 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


very  much  while  seasoning  and  for  this  reason,  if  partially 
seasoned  timber  is  used,  the  danger  of  seams  of  scarphs 
opening  through  wood  shrinking  is  greatly  reduced. 

Fig.  29  is  a  photograph  of  a  ship's  keel  being  set  on 
building  blocks;  Fig.  30  shows  photograph  of  keel,  stim 
and  stern  post  of  a  shallow  draught  hull  set  on  building 
blocks,  and  Fig.  31  shows  drawings  of  construction  de- 
tails of  which  keel  forms  a  part. 

8b^.     Scarphing  Keels 

As  timber  long  enough  to  make  a  keel  of  a  ship  is 
difficult  to  obtain,  it  is  very  often  necessary  to  join  two  or 
more  pieces  lengthways  by  scarphing  and  bolting  or 
riveting.  Keel  scarphs  should  always  be  either  nibbed 
or  hooked,  because  a  plain  scarph  lacks  strength  and  can- 
not be  held  in  place  under  the  strain  a  keel  is  subjected 
to.  On  Plate  VIIc,  6,  7,  8,  I  show  details  of  plain, 
nibbed  and  hooked  scarphs,  the  relative  strength  of  each 


being :  The  nibbed  scarph  has  one  and  one-quarter  times 
the  strength  of  the  plain  one,  and  the  hooked  scarph  has 
two  and  one-half  times  the  strength  of  the  plain  one. 
While  scarphs  can  be  cut  either  vertically  or  horizontally, 
meaning  by  this  cut  on  a  vertical  plane  parallel  to  moulded 
surface  (side)  of  keel,  or  cut  on  a  horizontal  plane 
parallel  with  sided  surface  (top)  of  keel,  horizontal 
scarphs  are  generally  used  when  scarphing  keels  because 
they  are  easier  to  cut,  fasten  and  keep  tight ;  but  no  matter 
which  kind  of  scarph  is  used,  it  is  very  important  to  make 
it  of  sufficient  length  to  permit  the  proper  number  of 
fastenings  to  be  driven.  Length  of  scarphs  should  vary 
with  dimensions  of  material  and  size  of  ship,  but  it  is 
safe  to  adhere  to  this  rule:  Make  keel  scarph  extend 
under  at  least  four  frames  (three  frame  spaces). 

In  some  cases,  especially  if  ship  is  a  large  one,  it  is 
necessary  in  addition  to  scarphing  two  or  more  timbers 


Dead  eye- 
Upper  Channel 

Cham  Puiic— 
iBulwark , 

Plankahe^'-  - 
SheeT9trake^- 

(  Lower., 

^Clumrul 

Cham  Bolt... 
Pltvcnter  Boll 


"Topgallatit  RmI 

■Topgallant  Bulwark  Stanchwii 
/Nam  Rail 

Bulwark  Stanckion 
Cp<.'cnng  BoarJ 
■Waterway 
/ ,'hitier  Wfiterway 


f^F,dlwoh 
"Wmher 


'RultrKe^ow 
MoMi  Keelson. 
Liniher-loard 


Bottom  Planhim 


Floor  or  Floortini  her^ 
Vfali'rcourse'^ 


K,-ct  Rohhct 
/-IT        ,         ,    •  E23a     ^Jiaiiv  Keel 

Gari^^nl  stmke-      p^^^U,,,,Keel 


Fig.   28.     Cross-Section   of   Ship,    Showing   Construction   Details,   Marked  For  Identification 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


47 


FlK.  29.     Laying  the  Keel  of  Another  Ship  as  Soon  as  the  Accoma  Left 
the  Ways  at  the  Foundation  Company's  Yard 


together  to  make  the  required  length  of  keel,  to  also 
fasten  two  or  more  timbers  on  top  of  each  other  to  get 
the  required  moulded  (depth)  size. 

In  such  cases  the  scarphs  must  be  located  longitu- 
dinally, so  that  there  is  a  considerable  distance  between 
the  location  of  a  scarph  on  top  keel  timber  and  that  of 
scarph  on  piece  of  timber  immediately  below.  By  doing 
this  each  scarph  is  supported  and  strengthened  against 
hogging  and  sagging  strains  by  the  solid  timber  im- 
mediately below  or  above. 

8b".     An  Explanation  of  Coaked  Keel  Scarphs 

The  word  "coaked"  refers  to  a  method  of  increasing 
strength  of  scarphs  by  preventing  the  joint  from  moving 
sideways  or  endways.  A  coak  is  a  rectangular  or  round 
piece  of  hard  wood  laid  into  the  surface  of  two  pieces  of 
timber,  that  are  scsfrphed  together,  in  such  a  manner 
that  one-half  the  depth  of  coak  is  in  each  piece  of  timber. 
On  Fig.  33  is  shown  a  properly  coaked  keel  scarph  and 
it  is  apparent  that,  by  the  addition  of  coaks,  the  resis- 
tance to  sliding  and  holding  strength  of  bolts  has  been 
greatly  increased.  In  the  days  when  wooden  ships  were 
built  in  large  numbers,  all  principal  keel,  stem,  stem, 
keelson  and  frame  scarphs  were  coaked,  but  in  these  days 
coaking  is  seldom  used,  and  in  ignoring  the  advantages 


of  coaking  a  scarph  I  believe  the  shipbuilders  are  mak- 
ing a  serious  error.  With  modern  machinery  now  avail- 
able every  scarph  could  be  coaked  without  seriously  in- 
creasing cost. 

8b*.    Fastening  Scarphs  of  Keels 

Next  in  importance  to  cutting  and*  fitting  is  method  of 
securing,  because  the  strength  and  number  of  fastenings 
must  be  proper  to  withstand  all  strains  put  upon  joint  or 
:  carph.  Fig.  33,  drawing  of  keel,  shows  two  pieces  of 
timber  scarphed  and  fastened,  the  scarph  being  a  longi- 
tudinal nibbed  and  coaked  one.  Fastenings  are  clearly 
indicated  on  drawing.  Note  there  is  a  clench  ring  under 
^he  head  and  also  under  riveted  end  of  each  fastening, 
and  that  one-half  the  fastenings  are  driven  from  each 
side  (top  and  bottom)  of  keel.  Below  I  mention  a  few 
good  rules  to  adhere  to  when  laying  out  keel  scarph 
fastenings. 

(a)  Make  the  diameter  of  fastenings  in  accordance 
with  size  laid  down  by  classification  society,  and 
bore  holes  for  fastenings  with  an  auger  that  is 
at  least  one-eighth  inch  smaller  than  bolt. 

(b)  At  extreme  ends  of  scarph  let  there  be  double 
fastenings. 

(c)  Space  intermediate  fastenings  equally  and  locate 
each  fastening  a  sufficient  distance  inside  edge 
of  keel  to  bring  both  the  fastenings  and  washers 
well  inside  and  clear  of  rabbet. 

(d)  Locate  all  keel  scarphs  fastenings  in  positions 
that  will  not  interfere  with  the  driving  of  frame 
to  keel  fastenings,  and  keelson  to  frame  and  keel 
fastenings. 

On  Fig.  33  is  shown  frames  and  keelson  in  position  and 
fastened  to  keel. 

Sb'^.     Stopwaters  in  Keel  Scarphs 

I  will  next  call  attention  to  the  method  of  keeping 
water  from  leaking  through  a  horizontal  keel  scarph. 
Before  the  scarph  is  put  together  for  fastening,  it  is 
usual  to  either  paint  or  treat  the  surfaces  that  go  to- 
gether with  some  wood  preservative  and,  of  course,  the 
scarph  is  accurately  fitted  before  it  is  fastened.  But 
these  precautions  do  not  prevent  the  wood  shrinking 
and  the  joint  opening.  So  it  is  necessary  to  use  some 
methods  of  preventing  water  from  passing  inside  the 
ship  should  a  scarph  joint  open.  The  most  satisfactory 
method  of  doing  this  is  to  put  one  or  more  stopwaters 
through  the  seam  of  a  scarph  in  such  a  location  that  the 
stopwater  will  prevent  water  that  passes  along  scarph 
getting  inside  the  ship. 

A  stopwater  is  a  well-seasoned  soft-wood  dowel  or 
plug  that  is  driven  into  a  slightly  smaller  hole  bored 
edgeways  along  the  seam  of  a  scarph  in  such  a  manner 
that  one-half  of  hole  will  be  each  side  of  joint. 

Of  course  the  stopwater  must  be  located  in  the  proper 
position,  which  is,  in  a  keel  scarph  like  the  one  I  am 


48 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  30.     Keel  Set  Up 


referring  to,  in  rabbet  of  keel.  When  located  in  this 
position  the  caulking  of  garboard  covers  end  of  stop- 
water  and  prevents  water  from  passing  back  of  it.  Holes 
for  keel  stopwaters  should  never  be  bored  or  stopwater 
driven  until  ship  is  ready  for  planking. 

On  Fig.  34  I  have  shown  keel  stopwater  in  place ; 
note  it  is  in  such  a  position  that  garboard  will  cover  it. 


Fig.  31.     As  Soon  as  the  Congaree  Was  Lanncbed  From  the  Foundation 
Company's  Yard  Workmen   Laid  the  Keel  For  Another  Vessel 


Sb"       Keel  Rabbet 

In  paragraph  above  I  mentioned  rabbet  of  keel,  so 
perhaps  I  had  better  explain  how  a  keel  rabbet  is  cut. 

The  rabbet  extends  from  end  to  end  of  keel  and 
mei'ges  into _ rabbet  of  stem  and  stern;  it  is  sometimes  a 
groove  cut  at  proper  angle  and  width  for  plank  to  fit  into 
and  sometimes  is  formed  by  beveling  the  upper  corners 
of  keel  in  such  a  manner  that  garboard  will  fit  square 
against  keel.  On  cross-section  construction  view  (Fig. 
28)  a  grooved  rabbet  cut  near  to  top  of  keel  is  shown, 
and  on  Fig.  29  (photo  of  keel)  the  beveled  upper  corner 
rabbet  can  clearly  be  seen.  Note  that  rabbet  at  end?  of 
keel  is  never  cut  until  after  stem  and  stern  post  is  set 
up  and  fastened  in  place.  As  regards  value  the  advan- 
tage lies  with  grooved  rabbet,  because  the  wood  back  of 
groove  forms  a  backing  for  caulking,  while  the  groove 
tends  to  add  support  to  garboard  along  its  lower  edge, 
and  in  addition  to  this  the  small  amount  of  keel  wood 
above  rabbet  is  sufficient  to  necessitate  the  notching  of 
floor  timbers  over  keel  and  thus  they  are  strengthened 
against  side  thrust.  As  regards  labor  to  construct  the 
advantage  lies  with  the  beveled-edge  rabbet. 

8b'.     Edge-Bolting  a  Keel 

In  the  days  when  wood  was  the  principal  shipbuild- 
ing material,  keels  were  nearly  always  edge-bolted,  the 
bolts  being  driven  from  alternate  side  of  keel  and  spaced 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


49 


the  distance  alternate  frames  were  apart,  all  bolts  being 
placed  some  distance  below  garboard,  as  edge-bolts 
through  garboard  into  keel  were  considered  sufficient  to 
strengthen  the  upper  edge  of  keel. 

Without  doubt  edge-bolting  a  keel  is  advantageous 
because  it  tends  to  prevent  keel  being  split  by  driving  the 
large  number  of  vertical  bolts  that  pass  through  it,  and  by 
the  working  of  these  bolts  when  ship  is  afloat;  and  in 
addition  to  this  edge-bolting  will  oftentimes  prevent  a 
keel  splitting  should  the  ship  go  aground. 

Sb".     False  Keel,  or  Shoe 

This  is  a  relatively  thin  piece  of  timber  2  inches  to  4 
inches  in  thickness,  that  is  fastened  below  keel  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  its  lower  portion  from  damage 
should  a  ship  go  aground.  On  Figs.  25  and  28  the  false 
keel  is  plainly  marked. 

The  false  keel  extends  the  whole  length  of  keel  and 
is  fastened  with  independent  fastenings  that  do  not  pass 
entirely  through  keel,  their  number  and  strength  being 
sufficient  to  secure  the  keel  under  normal  conditions,  but 
not  sufficient  to  hold  it  in  place  should  ship  go  aground. 
The  false  keel  is  always  fastened  in  place  after  ship  is 
built,  and  when  keel  timber  is  relatively  soft  material, 
such  as  Douglas  fir,  or  long-leaf  yellow  pine,  false  keel  is 
made  of  some  durable  wood,  oak,  hard  maple  or  beech. 

8c.     The  Stem 

The  stem  is  the  extreme  forward  construction  timber 
of  a  hull  and  is  the  timber  to  which  the  ends  of  planking 
are  fastened.  The  stem  is  attached  to  forward  end  of 
keel  by  scarphing  and  is  reinforced  and  held  in  place  by 
knees  or  timbers  riveted  or  bolted  to  both  keel  and  stem ; 
these  timbers  are  clearly  shown  on  Fig.  35,  which  is  a 
reproduction  of  the  drawing  of  keel,  stem  and  stemknee 
construction  of  a  modern  wood  ship. 

The  Fig.  35  construction  details  are  the  simplest  that 
it  is  possible  to  design,  and  in  simplifying  the  construc- 
tion strength  has  not  been  sacrificed. 

For  the  purpose  of  enabling  a  comparison  to  be  made 
between  the  older  and  more  modern  methods  of  construct- 
ing a  stem  I  have  shown  on  Fig.  36  stem  construction 
of  a  wood  ship  built  in  1876. 

Compare  Fig.  35  with  Fig.  36  and  the  more  compli- 
cated construction  is  noticeable. 

When  scarphing  a  stem  to  keel  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  scarph  will  have  to  withstand  strains  coming 


fT^^^..  riiA.f 


Coaled  Keel  Scarpb  and  Stopw^ter 


from  ahead,  and  therefore  the  scarph  must  be  nibbed, 
or  hooked,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  add  strength  to 
fastenings  should  the  stem  receive  a  direct  blow  from 
ahead,  as  would  be  the  case  should  ship  hit  another  vessel 
or  take  the  ground  head  on. 

On  Fig.  35  and  36  the  scarph  fastenings  are  clearly 
shown.  * 

You  should  also  note  that  on  Fig.  36  stem  construc- 
tion names  of  principal  pieces  are  marked. 

One  thing  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  laying  out  a 
stem,  and  that  is,  to  have  the  grain  of  wood  run  length- 
ways of  all  pieces  of  timber.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  have  full-length  grain  in  all  pieces,  but  if  the  shape  of 
stem  is  such  that  a  great  deal  of  cross-grained  wood  must 
be  used,  if  stem  is  gotten  out  of  straight  planks  or  tim- 
bers it  is  better  to  make  use  of  some  knees  or  material 
that  has  a  certain  amount  of  natural  bend  of  grain  or 
fibres. 

Every  piece  of  short  grain  should  be  supported  or 
backed  by  a  piece  having  straight  grain  and  the  fasten- 
ings should  be  spaced  and  located  in  such  a  manner  th.at 
the  several  pieces  of  timber  will  be  rigidly  fastened  to- 
gether and  to  keel. 

A  stem  receives  the  ends  of  outside  planking  and  there- 
fore it  must  have  a  rabbet.  This  rabbet  is  cut  either 
upon  the  after  edge,  or  along  the  stem  a  little  distance 
inside  of  its  after  edge,  but  in  either  case  the  rabbet  ex- 
tends from  stem  head  to  keel  and  is  backed  up  by  apron 
piece  into  which  a  number  of  the  plank  end  fastenings 
will  be  driven. 

Ahead  of  rabbet  the  stem  is  beveled  to  take  the  ap- 
proximate shape  of  longitudinal  lines  of  ship,  and  after 
this  beveling  is  completed  the  front  of  stem  is  frequently 
protected  by  a  piece  of  steel,  called  a  stem  band,  that  ex- 
tends from  above  the  heavy  load  water-line  down  to  fore- 
foot. 

8d.     The  Apron 

The  apron  is  the  piece  of  timber  that  is  fitted  to  after 
side  of  stem  and  extends  from  stem  head  down  to  for- 
ward deadwood.  In  fact,  the  apron  can  be  considered  as 
a  continuation  of  forward  deadwood.  The  apron  forms 
a  support  for  stem  and  for  the  fastenings  that  hold  the 
forward  ends  of  planking  in  place  in  stem  rabbet.  On 
Figs.  35  and  36,  the  apron  is  clearly  indicated,  as  well  as 
method  of  fastening  it  to  stem.  Some  shipbuilders  make 
it  a  practice  to  allow  apron  piece  to  extend  to  forward 
ends  of  planking,  and  thus  the  whole  of  rabbet  is  cut  in 
apron,  and  stem  only  forms  a  protection  for  the  ends  of 
planking-.  This  method  is  largely  resorted  to  when  con- 
structing smaller  craft  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  allow- 
ing replacing  a  stem,  should  it  be  damaged,  with  the  mini- 
mum of  labor.  This  method,  however,  has  the  disad- 
vantage of  reducing  strength  of  construction. 

In  large  vessels  the  rabbet  for  plank  is  cut  in  stem  and 
therefore  joint  between  stem  and  apron  is  along  a  line 
cut  a  short  distance  inside  of  bearding  line  of  rabbet. 


50 


pro  O  DEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


It  is  usual  to  make  apron  the  same  width  as  stem, 
but  if  it  is  impossible  to  get  proper  bearing  for  planking 
end  fastenings  without  increasing  width  of  apron,  the 
apron  is  made  of  material  considerably  wider  than  stem. 
In  fastening  apron  to  stem,  through  bolts  are  usually  em- 
ployed, and  care  should  be  taken  to  space  them  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  will  not  interfere  with  bolts  of  cant 
timbers  or  breasthook  fastenings.  In  a  number  of  cases 
I  have  noticed  that  shipyards  are  driving  apron  and  stem 
fastenings  parallel  to  each  other.  This  is  not  good  prac- 
tice, and  much  better  resuUs,  so  far  as  resistance  to  pull- 
ing apart  or  damage  is  concerned,  will  be  obtained  by 
driving  fastenings  at  varying  angles  to  each  other.  Tests 
of  the  holding  power  of  fastenings  driven  parallel  to  each 
other  and  fastenings  driven  at  various  angles  show  that 
"various  angle"  fastenings  have  a  holding  power  60% 
greater  than  parallel  fastenings.  This  test  was  made  with 
i-inch  diameter  fastenings  connecting  together  two  12- 
inch  pieces  of  yellow  pine.  The  power  used  was  applied 
for  the  purpose  of  separating  the  joint. 

Hard  wood  is  the  best  material  to  use  for  stem  and 
apron,  and  even  if  stem  is  made  of  a  resinous  wood,  such 
as  fir  or  yellow  pine,  the  apron  should  be  of  oak,  or  a 
hard  wood  of  similar  strength  and  durability.  Apron  is 
shown  on  Figs.  25,  35  and  36  illustrations. 

8e.    The  Knightheads 

Knightheads  are  timbers  placed  on  each  side  of  apron 
when  the  rabbet  is  on  after  edge  of  stem,  and  partly  on 
stem  and  partly  on  apron  when  rabbet  is  cut  along  stem 
and  apron.  These  timbers  give  support  to  bowsprit,  and 
add  strength  to  the  foremost  extremities  of  outside 
planking  (called  hooding  ends.) 

Knightheads  should  extend  a  sufficient  height  above 
bowsprit  to  receive  the  fastenings  of  bowsprit  chock,  and 


a  sufficient  distance  below  deck  to  give  necessary  added 
strength  to  the  structure  around  the  bowsprit. 

When  the  diameter  of  bowsprit  exceeds  siding  of  stem 
at  head,  so  that  knightheads  would  have  to  be  cut  con- 
siderably to  allow  bowsprit  to  pass  between  them,  pieces 
of  timber,  called  stem  pieces,  sufficiently  thick  to  give 
necessary  increase  of  width  to  stem  and  apron,  are 
fastened  to  sides  of  stem  and  apron. 

Knightheads  and  stem  pieces  are  made  to  conform 
to  scantling  of  frame,  and  are  bolted  to  stem.  When 
the  bow  of  vessel  is  not  too  acute  the  bolts  should  pass 
through  both  knightheads  and  stem;  but  when  too  acute 
the  bolts  can  be  driven  from  each  side  through  one  knight- 
head  and  stem  only. 

On  Fig.  26  the  knightheads  are  indicated. 

8f.     Forward  Deadwood 

This  is  the  piece  of  timber  placed  on  top  of  keel, 
immediately  aft  of  stem,  for  the  purpose  of  making  depth 
of  wood  at  forward  end  of  keel  sufficient  to  allow  a  solid 
backing  for  the  frames. 

In  most  vessels,  as  stem  is  approached  the  lines  narrow 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  frames  assume  a  "V"-Hke 
appearance  and  this,  of  course,  will  increase  the  distance 
between  rabbet  and  bearding  line,  and  from  bearding 
to  cutting  down  line,  or  line  where  top  edge  of  timbers 
leave  side  of  keel,  stem  or  deadwood.  On  Figs.  25,  35 
and  36  the  forward  deadwood  is  clearly  shown. 

Fig-  35  shows  modern  method  of  forward  deadwood 
construction  when  straight  material  is  used,  and  Fig.  36 
shows  method  of  construction  that  was  in  use  before  the 
advent  of  steel  ships.  The  old  method  is  more  com- 
plicated but  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  more  durable 
and  stronger  than  the  more  modern  method. 

In  constructing  forward  deadwood  it  is  essential  that 
fastenings  be  properly  driven  and  correct  in  size  and 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


5r 


number.  It  is  advantageous  and  advisable  to  nib  the 
ends  of  deadwood  into  keel  and  stem,  and  to  use  coaks 
when  deadwood  is  built  of  straight  material. 

The  size  of  dimensions  of  deadwood  is  usually  the 
same  as  keel. 

8g.     Stern-Post 

Stern-post  is  the  perpendicular  piece  of  timber 
fastened  to  after  end  of  keel.  The  stern-post  forms  a 
portion  of  the  after  boundary  of  the  framework  of  ship 
and  is  the  timber  to  which  after  ends  of  all  lower  planks 
fasten. 

The  stern-post  is  usually  constructed  of  material  of 
same  sided  dimensions  as  keel'  and  is  rabbeted  to  re- 
ceive the  ends  (after  hoods)  of  all  planks  that  terminate 
at  stern-post.  It  is  usual  to  secure  stern-post  to  keel 
by  tenoning  it  into  mortises  cut  into  keel,  and  securing 
the  tenoned  lower  end  against  rupture  by  placing  dove- 
tail plates  (let  in  flush)  on  each  side  and  securing  them 
with  through  bolts.  In  addition  to  this  the  stern-post  is 
supported  and  fastened  to  the  after  deadwood  and  to 
shaft  log  if  there  is  one. 

In  vessel  propelled  by  sail  only  the  after  end  of  stern- 
post  is  grooved  in  such  a  manner  that  forward  edge  of 
rudder  post  will  lay  close  against  it,  and  by  closing  the 
opening  between  stern-post  and  rudder  eddies  at  this 
point  are  eliminated.  In  such  vessels  the  stern-post  must 
have  a  sufficient  width  and  strength  to  receive  the  fasten- 
ings of  rudder  gudgeon  and  pintle  straps. 

On  Fig.  37  is  shown  details  of  sternpost  construction 
of  sailing  vessel,  and  you  will  note  that  the  stern-post  is 
composed  of  two  pieces  of  material  fastened  together. 
This  is  done  when  width  of  available  material  is  not  suffi- 
cient, or  when  additional  strength  of  stern-post  is  needed. 
The  forward  piece  of  the  two  is  named  the  inner  stern- 
post. 

On  Fig.  39  is  shown  the  modern  method  of  construc- 
tion at  after  end  of  keel. 

In  vessels  that  have  a  screw  propeller  located  along 
center  line  the  stern-post  is  shaped  to  receive  the  out- 
board bearing  of  propeller  shaft,  and  rudder  is  hung  some 
distance  aft  of  stern-post  on  a  frame  erected  to  receive 


Fig.   38.      Side  Counter  Timbers 

it.     Of  course  a  hole  for  propeller  shaft  to  pass  through 
must  be  bored  through  stern-post. 

On  Fig.  38  I  show  construction  of  stern-post  of  a 
screw-propelled  vessel. 

8h.     After  Deadwood 

The  after  deadwood  bears  the  same  relation  to  stern- 
post  that  forward  deadwood  does  to  stem.  It  is  fitted  on 
top  of  keel  and  against  stern-post,  and  is  sufficiently  deep 
to  permit  the  heels  of  after  frames  to  be  secured  to  it. 
The  after  deadwood  is  generally  made  of  timber  having 
the  same  siding  as  keel  and  stern-post. 

In  screw-propelled  vessels  the  upper  edge  of  dead- 
wood  timbers  forms  a  bearing  for  shaft  log  or  box,  and 
after  shaft  log  is  in  place  the  sternson  knee  is  fastened 
in  place  and  adds  strength  to  the  whole  assemblage  of 
pieces. 

It  is  advantageous  to  use  coaks  in  deadwood  timbers 
and  to  drive  the  fastenings  at  varying  angles. 

On  Fig.  39  construction  of  screw-propelled  vessel's 
after  deadwood  is  shown,  and  Fig.  37  shows  construc- 
tion of  a  sailing  vessel's  after  deadwood;  compare  the 
two  types  of  construction. 

On  Fig.  36  is  shown  after  deadwood  construction  of 
vessel  built  in  1868. 

8i.     Counter  Timbers — On  Counter  and  Elliptical 

Sterns 

Counter  timbers  extend  aft  from  stern-post  in  all 
round  and  elliptical  stern  vessels  to  form  the  rake  of 
stern.  There  are  in  reality  three  counter  timbers,  two 
side  counter  timbers  and  one  center  counter  timber. 

The  side  counter  timbers  are  placed  each  side  of  stern- 
post,  extend  aft  at  rake  that  lower  portion  of  counter 
must  have,  are  set  into  grooves  cut  each  side  of  stern- 
post,  and  securely  bolted  to  stern-post,  to  deadwood,  to 


52 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  39.     Constrnctlon  Plan  of  Three-Masted  Auxiliary  Schooner,  Which  Will  Carry  700  Tons  Dead  Weight 


each  Other,  and  to  deadwood,  sternson  knee  and  shaft 
log  (if  there  is  a  shaft  log)  ahead  of  stern-post. 

On  Fig.  38  the  side  counter  timbers  of  an  elhptical 
stern  vessel  are  shown  in  place,  and  on  Fig.  37  the 
method  of  fastening  them  to  deadwood  and  stem-post  is 
shown. 

The  center  counter  timber  must  be  large  enough  to 
fill  the  space  between  side  counter  timbers,  and  as  rudder- 
post  opening  is  cut  through  the  center  counter  timber  the 
distance  from  inside  of  one  counter  timber  to  inside  of 
the  other  one  must  be  at  least  equal  to  diameter  of  rudder 
post. 

A  rudder  port  is  constructed  around  rudder-post 
opening.  After  the  three  counter  timbers  are  bolted  to- 
gether a  rabbet  to  receive  edge  of  planking  that  terminates 
along  counter  is  cut  along  the  lower  outer  edge  of  out- 
side counter  timbers. 

Fig.  40  illustrates  modern  elliptical  stern  construction 
details. 

8k.    The  Frame 

This  is  the  name  given  to  the  transverse  timbers  that 
are  shaped  to  the  form  of  vessel  and  placed  at  stated  dis- 
tances apart  from  stem  to  stern. 

Along  the  center  portion  of  a  vessel,  where  the  shape 
does  not  change  very  much,  the  frame  timbers  are  placed 
square  to  the  longitudinal  plane  and  for  this  reason  are 
named  square  frames.  But  at  the  ends  (bow  and  stern) 
where  shape  changes  considerably  the  frame  timbers  are 
placed  obliquely  to  longitudinal  vertical  plane  and  for 
this  reason  are  named  cant  frames.  (They  are  canted  or 
inclined  from  the  perpendicular.)  In  addition  to  the 
frame  of  a  vessel  being  composed  of  a  number  of  timbers, 
placed  as  stated  above,  each  separate  frame  is  composed 
of  several  pieces  assembled  and  fastened  together,  and 
each  of  these  pieces  (called  timbers  of  the  frame)  has 
a  distinguishing  name,  viz.,  first,  second,  third,  fourth, 
fifth  and  sixth  futtocks;  and  long  and  short  top  timbers. 
Of  course  you  will  understand  that  the  number  of  fut- 
tocks will  vary  with  size  of  vessel. 

In  addition  to  this  each  frame  of  the  square  body  is 
fastened  to  a  floor  timber  that  scores  over  and  lays  across 


the  keel.  The  cant  frames  do  not  generally  have  floor 
timbers  but  have  their  lower  ends  mortised  directly  into 
the  deadwood  or  other  piece  of  material  against  which 
they  rest. 

The  sided  and  moulded  dimensions  of  frames  and 
also  distance  center  of  one  frame  is  from  center  of  next 
one,  called  timber  and  space,  is  specified  for  all  sizes  of 


Fig.  40 

vessels  (see  Table  3b),  and  Fig.  41  defines  the  meaning 
of  terms  Sided,  Moulded,  and  Timber  and  Space. 

Explanation  of  Terms 

The  sided  measure  of  a  frame  is  width  or  thickness  of 
material  of  which  it  is  composed  measured  on  fore-and- 
aft  line  when  frame  is  in  position  in  vessel. 

Moulded  measure  of  a  frame  is  width  or  breadth  of 
material  of  which  frame  is  composed  measured  along  a 
transverse  line  when  frame  is  in  position  in  a  vessel.     The 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


53 


term  means  the  measurement  of  side  on  which  the  mould 
of  shape  of  frame  is  placed. 

Timber  and  space  means  the  longitudinal  space,  or 
room,  occupied  by  the  timber  of  one  frame  added  to  the 
space  between  it  and  the  next  frame. 

On  Fig.  28  I  show  a  transverse  view  of  an  assembled 
square  frame,  each  piece  of  which  is  identified. 

Beginning  at  the  lower  (keel)  end  of  a  frame  I  will 
describe  each  piece  and  explain  how  the  various  pieces 
are  shaped  and  fastened  together. 

8k\     The  Floor  or  Floor  Timber 

This  is  the  name  of  the  piece  of  timber  that  crosses 
keel  and  serves  to  tie  a  frame  on  one  side  of  keel  with 
one  on  the  other.  On  the  illustration  the  floor  is  clearly 
marked. 

The  floors  of  the  midship  frame  usually,  in  flat-floored 
ships,  extend  out  to  about  one-fourth  the  breadth  on  each 

TIMBER  Alto 
SPACE        I  _    -^^ 


MOUL 


side  of  keel,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  if  the  floors 
are  doubled  (two  floors  placed  alongside  of  each  other) 
each  will  have  a  long  and  a  short  arm,  the  long  arm  of 
one  floor  being  on  side  of  keel  that  the  short  arm  of 
adjacent  one  is.  The  reason  for  this  is  explained  in 
description  of  frame  timbers. 

Floors  are  secured  to  keel  with  bolts,  and  if  notched 
over  keel  their  lowest  points  must  exactly  reach  to 
bearding  line  of  rabbet.  The  distance  from  bearding  line 
of  rabbet  of  keel  to  the  upper  part  of  floors,  at  their 
center  line,  is  called  the  cutting  down,  or  throating. 

Dimensions  of  floors  and  their  fastenings  are  given 
in  Tables  3b  and  3d. 

8k-.   The  Frame  Timbers 

The  pieces  of  timber  of  which  a  frame  is  composed 


must  be  disposed  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be 
fastened  together  securely.-  This  is  done  by  shifting  the 
butts  and  bolting  the  pieces  together  in  the  manner  illus- 
trated on  Figs.  28  and  42a  and  explained  below. 

The  floor  on  illustration  is  a  double  one,  the  dash  line 
marked  near  keel  across  it  indicating  the  end  of  a  short 
arm,  and  the  full  line  a  little  further  out  indicating  end 
of  a  long  arm. 

The  first  futtock  is  butted  against  the  end  of  short  arm 
of  floor  and  the  upper  end  of  this  futtock  extends  to 
dotted  line  next  above  the  full  line  that  indicates  end  of 
long  arm  of  floor.  This  permits  lower  portion  of  first 
futtock  to  be  bolted  to  portion  of  long-arm  floor  that 
extends  beyond  the  short  arm  of  adjacent  floor.  The 
lower  end  of  second  futtock  butts  against  long-arm  end 
of  floor  and  upper  end  of  this  futtock  extends  some 
distance  above  upper  end  of  first  futtock.  The  lower 
end  of  second  futtock  is  fastened  to  portion  of  upper  end 
of  first  futtock  that  extends  beyond  end  of  long  arm  of 
floor.  In  this  manner  each  succeeding  futtock  overlaps 
and  is  bolted  to  the  one  below,  and  thus  any  short  grain 
of  wood  at  the  end  of  a  futtock  is  strengthened  by  the 
long  grain  of  piece  that  overlaps  it.  On  illustration  the 
even  numbered  futtocks  are  marked  for  identification, 
and  location  of  odd  numbered  ones  is  indicated  by  dash 
lines  and  numbers  only. 

Bolts  are  used  to  fasten  the  futtocks  to  floor  arms  and 
to  each  other,  and  if  maximum  strength  is  desired  round 
coaks  are  inserted  between  the  overlapping  portions  of 
futtocks. 

All  fastenings  of  futtocks  should  be  located  in  posi- 
tions that  will  keep  them  clear  of  knee  and  waterway 
fastenings,  and  if  filling  frames  are  to  be  used  the  heads 
and  ends  of  bolts  that  are  located  where  filling  frames 
will  be  must  be  countersunk  flush  with  surface  of  wood. 

8k^.     Filling  Frames 

This  is  the  name  given  to  short  frames  located  between 
the  frames  proper  and  extending  from  keel  to  about  the 
turn  of  bilge.  Their  use  is  to  strengthen  the  transverse 
bottom  framing  of  vessel,  but  originally  they  were  used 
in  conjunction  with  caulking  to  make  the  whole  of  bottom 
of  a  vessel's  transverse  framing  watertight. 

The  old  method  of  using  filling  frames  was  to  make 
these  frames  extend  from  keel  to  orlop  deck  location  and 
to  completely  fill  spaces  between  frames  proper.  Thus 
the  whole  of  bottom  and  bilges  of  a  vessel  was  made  one 
solid  mass  of  wood,  and  when  the  seams  between  the 
various  frames  and  filling  frames  were  caulked  with 
oakum  the  whole  bottom  framing  of  vessel  was  made 
watertight.  Construction  of  this  kind  requires  a  very 
large  amount  of  material,  and  the  weight  of  a  vessel  con- 
structed in  this  manner  is  much  greater  than  that  of  a 
vessel  constructed  in  accordance  with  modern  ideas  of 
what  is  proper  and  necessary.  In  present-day  construc- 
tion of  large  vessels  one  filling  frame,  or  at  most  two, 


54 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  42.     The  Dimensions  Are:   L.  O.  A.   200  Ft.,  Length  on  Deck  177  Ft.,  Breadth  36  Ft.  8  In.     She  l3  to  be  Rigged  With  Porr  Masts 


is  placed  between  each  two  regular  frames,  the  filling 
frames  extending  out  to  about  turn  of  bilge. 

In  small  and  moderate  sized  vessels  the  filling  frames 
are  frequently  omitted  entirely. 

In  addition  to  these  filling  frames,  filling  pieces  are 
placed  in  the  wake  of  fore,  main,  and  mizzen  rigging, 
wherever  a  valve  connection  passes  through  the  bottom  or 
side  of  vessel,  where  a  knee  will  not  coincide  with  a 
regular  frame,  and  wherever  an  opening  of  any  kind  is 
cut  through  side  or  bottom. 

8k*.     Cant  Frames 

I  have  already  mentioned  that  some  of  the  frames  are 
canted  out  of  perpendicular.  I  will  now  explain  the 
reason  for  doing  this. 

When  referring  to  the  transverse  framing  a  vessel  is 
considered  as  being  divided  into  two  principal  parts,  one 
part  being  named  the  square  body  frame  and  the  other 
the  cant  body  frame.  Along  the  square  body  (the  part  of 
a  vessel  where  the  shape  of  cross-section  changes  very 
little)  the  frames  stand  perpendicular  at  right  angles  to 
center  line  of  keel,  and  parallel  to  each  other;  and  along 
the  portions  of  a  vessel  where  cant  frames  are  located  the 
frames  are  canted,  or  swung  around  to  an  angle,  thus 
increasing  the  distance  they  are  apart  at  deck  line.  Cant 
frames  are  canted  forward  at  bow,  and  aft  at  stern,  the 
number  of  cant  frames  varying  in  each  vessel  and  depend- 
ing upon  fullness  at  deck  relative  to  fullness  along  dead- 
wood  at  stem  and  stern.  The  reason  that  forward  and 
aft  frames  of  a  wooden  vessel  are  canted  is,  that  in  the 


parts  where  deck  outline  merges  into  stem,  and  around 
the  curve  of  an  elliptical  stern  square  timbers  would  have 
to  be  beveled  to  an  excessive  degree  to  make  planking  lay 
against  the  frames  for  their  full  width,  and  this  exces- 
sive beveling  would  greatly  weaken  frames ;  or  if  frames 
were  a  sufficient  width  to  allow  for  beveling  an  excessive 
amount  of  material  would  be  wasted. 

By  inclining,  or  canting,  each  frame  so  that  its  outer 
face  parallels,  as  near  as  possible,  the  deck  outline  the 
amount  of  bevel  necessary  to  make  plank  fit  against  a 
frame  for  its  full  width  is  greatly  reduced  and  additional 
strength  of  frame  is  obtained  without  adding  to  the  ma- 
terial. Cant  frames  at  bow  always  cant  forward  and 
those  at  stern  cant  aft. 

On  Fig.  4 2  I  show  views  of  forward  cant  frames  in 
position.  You  will  note  by  referring  to  illustration  that 
no  change  is  made  in  spacing  of  lower  ends  of  cant 
frames,  but  by  canting  the  actual  interval  (space)  be- 
tween upper  ends  of  frames  increases,  and  as  outer  face 
of  frames  more  nearly  follows  shape  of  vessel's  out- 
line, they  oflfer  a  greater  resistance  to  pressure  of  waves 
at  bow  and  at  stern. 

The  lower  ends  of  cant  frames  are  always  "boxed" 
into  deadwood  about  i^  inches  deep,  except  in  range  of 
a  shaft  hole,  and  each  cant  frame  is  bolted  through  dead- 
wood. 

Before  the  days  of  steel  ships  it  was  usual  to  cant  all 
frames  ahead  and  aft  of  the  middle  body,  but  modem 
wooden  shipbuilders  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  cant 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


55 


f«.-lTTMMC1  roP    KEEl--iC««    TTC 


Fig.  42a.     Midship  Constrnction  Plan  of  Four-Masted  Schooner  Building  For  J.  W.  Somervllle,  Designed  by  Cor  &  Stevens 


more  than  a  few  frames  at  extreme  bow  and  a  few  at  ex- 
treme stem. 

The  old  method  is  certainly  the  best  but  it  entails  a 
greater  amount  of  work  both  in  the  mould  loft  and  when 
erecting  the  frame. 

81.     Hawse  Pieces 

Hawse  pieces  are  pieces  of  timber  used  to  fill  in 
between  the  knightheads  and  the  foremost  cant  frames. 
Their  use  is  to  give  solid  wood  for  the  hawse  pipe  to  pass 
through  and  fasten  to. 

In  reality  hawse  pieces  are  cant  frames  that  close  the 
openings  between  forward  cant  frames  from  the  knight- 
heads aft  as  far  as  necessary  to  give  good  solid  fastening 
for  hawse-pipe  flanges.  The  lower  ends  of  hawse  timbers 
are  bolted  to  the  apron  and  the  several  hawse  timbers  are 
edge-bolted  together,  care  being  taken  to  keep  bolts  clear 
of  positions  where^  breasthooks  and  hawse  holes  are 
located.  On  Figs.  25  and  26  hawse  pieces  are  marked 
and  on  Fig.  42  they  are  very  clearly  shown. 

8m.    Keelsons 
8m^     Main 

The  keelson  is  a  timber  placed  immediately  over  keel 
on  top  of  the  floors,  over  which  it  is  sometimes  notched, 
and  extending  from  forward  deadwood  to  after  dead- 


wood.  It  unites  in  one  solid  structure  the  keel,  floors 
and  deadwoods. 

The  main  keelson  is  usually  built  up  of  a  number  of 
pieces  scarphed  together,  and  when  laying  out  a  keelson 
it  is  necessary  to  locate  the  scarphs  in  positions  that 
will  not  bring  them  immediately  over  a  keel  scarph.  The 
scarphs  are  usually  nibbed  and  have  a  length  equal  to  at 
least  two  frame  intervals  (double  the  room  and  space). 
Some  of  the  fastenings  of  scarphs  must  pass  through  both 
floors  and  keel,  and  if  the  maximum  strength  of  construc- 
tion is  desired  two  or  three  circular  coaks  should  be  fitted 
into  each  scarph.  The  lips  of  scarphs  are  fastened  with 
two  short  bolts  that  do  not  pass  through  keel. 

At  forward  end  of  vessel  the  main  keelson  usually 
scarphs  into  deadwood  and  is  then  secured  to  apron  by 
means  of  a  stemson  knee.  Aft  the  main  keelson  scarphs 
into  deadwood  and  in  some  vessels  the  sternson  knee 
rests  upon  main  keelson  and  serves  to  fasten  its  after  end 
to  stern-post. 

The  main  keelson  is  fastened  in  place  with  bolts  that 
pass  through  floors  and  into  keel,  and  in  vessels  that  are 
well  constructed  additional  strength  is  given  to  the  whole 
structure  by  coaking  the  lower  piece  of  main  keelson  to 
each  floor  and  filling  that  it  crosses:  3-inch  diameter 
coaks  are  used  for  doing  this. 

If  the  main  keelson  is  built  up  of  two  or  more  tim- 
bers placed  on  top  of  each  other  the  pieces  should  be 


50 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


coaked  together  with  square  coaks  before  the  through 
floor  and  keel  fastenings  are  driven. 

On  Figs.  25,  28,  35  a  main  keelson  is  shown  in  its 
proper  position  in  a  vessel. 

8m^.    Sister  Keelsons 

Sister  keelsons  are  generally  placed  each  side  of  and 
close  to  main  keelson,  extending  fore-and-aft  parallel  with 
main  keelson  to  where  the  reduction  in  width  of  floor  of 
vessel  reduces  their  depth  to  about  6  inches. 

These  keelsons,  in  properly  constructed  vessels,  are 
coaked  to  floors  and  filling  timbers  with  circular  coaks, 
then  bolted  to  floors  and  fillings  and  edge-bolted  to  main 
keelson.  Scarphs  of  sister  keelsons  are  cut  and  fastened 
the  same  as  main  keelson  scarphs.  On  Fig.  28  sister 
keelsons  are  shown  in  place. 

8m^.    Boiler  or  Bilge  Keelsons, 

In  all  vessels  having  machinery,  two  or  more  boiler 
or  bilge  keelsons  are  run  parallel  with  sister  keelsons  and 
suflSiciently  apart  to  form  the  lower  timber  of  engine  and 
boiler  foundations.  These  keelsons  are  coaked  and 
fastened  to  all  frames  and  filling  they  cross,  and  are  al- 
ways extended  as  far  as  possible  forward  and  aft,  because 
by  doing  this  the  strain  caused  by  weight  of  machinery, 
as  well  as  the  local  vibrations  caused  by  the  rotation  of 
engine  crank  are  spread  over  a  wide  extent  of  the  struc- 
ture. 

8m*.     Rider  Keelsons 

Rider  keelsons  are  placed  on  top  of  main  keelsons 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  additional  strength  to  the  whole 
longitudinal  structure  of  a  vessel.  In  Chapter  V  on  Strains 
I  explained  that  hogging  and  sagging  strains  can  best  be 
resisted  by  adding  strength  to  the  longitudinal  members 
of  a  vessel's  structure,  and  this  the  rider  keelson  does. 

On  Fig.  28  a  rider  keelson  is  shown  in  position. 

Rider  keelson  scarphs  and  fastenings  are  similar  to 
those  in  keelsons,  and  of  course  scarphs  must  be  prop- 
erly located  so  as  not  to  coincide  with  keelson  or  keel 
scarphs. 

Power  of  resistance  against  hogging  and  sagging 
strains  is  increased  when  rider  keelson  fastenings  are 
diagonally  driven  at  varying  angles  from  the  perpen- 
dicular. 

8n.     Stem  SON 

The  stemson  is  the  piece  of  material,  a  natural  knee, 
placed  in  angle  formed  by  apron,  upper  piece  of  dead- 
wood  and  forward  end  of  keelson.  It  acts,  as  an  addi- 
tional support  for  stem  and  serves  to  properly  tie  keelson 
and  forward  deadwood  to  stem  and  apron. 

The  fastenings  go  through  stem,  apron  and  stemson 
at  one  end,  and  keel,  deadwood,  keelson  and  stemson  at 
the  other. 

It  is  advantageous  to  use  coaks  in  addition  to  the 
metal  fastenings,  and  of  course  all  fastenings  should  be 
through  "bolts  clenched  on  rings. 

On  Fig.  25  the  stemson  is  clearly  indicated. 


80.     Sternson 

The  sternson  bears  the  same  relation  to  stern-post  that 
stemson  does  to  stem.  It  is  used  to  strengthen  stern- 
post  and  is,  in  the  case  of  vessels  having  a  shaft  log, 
placed  on  top  of  log  and  serves  to  hold  log  in  position. 

On  Fig.  25  a  sternson  knee  is  shown;  but  in  present- 
day  practice  stemson  and  sternson  knees  are  now  seldom 
used,  as  an  examination  of  illustrations  and  construction 
details  shown  in  this  book  will  indicate. 

8p.     Diagonal  Steel  Bracing  of  Frame 

Steel  straps  are  fastened  diagonally  across  outside  of 
the  frame  of  a  vessel  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening 
vessel  against  strains  that  tend  to  change  its  shape  longi- 
tudinally. (Hogging  or  sagging  strains.)  These  straps 
are  let  into  frames  flush,  cross  frames  at  about  45°  in- 
clination, and  are  fastened  with  at  least  one  bolt  through 
each  strap  into  each  frame,  and  to  each  other  with  rivets 
wherever  two  straps  cross.  The  dimensions  of  straps, 
their  number  and  location  varies  with  the  size  of  the  ves- 
sel.    (See  Table  3a  in  Chapter  III.) 

On  Fig.  25  is  shown  by  dotted  lines  the  general  direc- 
tion of  diagonal  straps.  In  large  vessels,  in  addition 
to  diagonal  straps,  it  is  usual  to  insert  a  steel  strap  arch 
on  inside  of  frames.  This  arch  begins  at  stem  near  to 
deadwood,  rises  in  a  curve  to  lower  side  of  upper  deck 
beams  at  about  midships,  and  from  these  descends  in  a 
curve  to  near  deadwood  at  stern-post.  This  strap  is  let 
into  frames  flush  and  is  fastened  in  place  with  one  bolt 
into  each  frame.  Bear  in  mind  that  these  and  the 
diagonal  straps  are  supplemented  later  by  one  or  more 
of  the  planking  fastenings  at  each  frame  going  through 
both  strap  and  frame. 

8q.     Planking 

Planking  is  the  name  given  to  outer  covering  of  the 
transverse  frame.  It  is  put  on  in  strakes  that  run  from 
stem  to  stem,  each  strake  being  properly  proportioned 
in  width  from  bow  to  midship  and  from  midship  to 
stern.  In  other  words,  the  planks  are  not  parallel  for 
their  entire  length  but  have  their  widths  graduated  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  number  of  planks  required  to  fill 
space  at  stem,  which  is  the  narrowest  space  to  fill,  will 
also  fill  space  at  midship  section,  which  is  the  widest 
space  to  fill.  A  single  plank  that  runs  from  stem  to  stern 
is  called  a  strake  of  planking.  Below  I  give  names  and 
description  of  principal  planks. 

8q'.     Garboard 

The  plank  next  to  keel  is  named  the  garboard.  The 
lower  edge  of  this  plank  is  fitted  into  rabbet  of  keel,  stem, 
and  stern-post,  and  it  is  usual  to  edge-bolt  this  plank  to 
keel,  in  addition  to  fastening  it  in  the  usual  manner  to  all 
frames  at  crosses.  The  garboard  is  generally  made  of 
thicker  material  than  rest  of  planking,  as  you  will  note  by 
referring  to  Fig.  42a. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


57 


In  a  large  vessel  there  may  be  two  or  three  thick 
strakes  next  to  garboard  proper.  In  such  cases  each 
strake  is  slightly  thinner  than  garboard  proper,  and  it  is 
correct  to  refer  to  all  these  thick  strakes  as  being  gar- 
board strakes.  Technically  there  can  be  only  one  gar- 
board strake,  but  as  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  one  plank 
sufficiently  wide  to  cover  the  space  that  thick  strake  next 
to  keel  should  cover,  the  term  garboard  is  used  when  re- 
ferring to  all  thick  strakes  next  to  keel. 

On  Fig.  42a -three  thick  strakes  are  shown  and  you 
will  note  how  each  succeeding  plank  is  slightly  thinner 
than  the  last  one  put  on.  When  planking  a  vessel  the 
garboard  is  the  first  bottom  plank  put  in  position,  and 
after  vessel  is  planked  the  excess  thickness  is  "dubbed  off" 
for  a  few  feet  at  bow  and  stern. 

8q^.     Sheer  Strake 

The  top  strake  of  planking  is  called  the  sheer.  This 
is  usually  the  first  strake  of  planking  put  on. 

As  this  plank  is  an  important  one  in  the  assemblage 
of  planks  that  aid  in  resisting  longitudinal  strains  its 
strength  should  be  at  a  maximum,  and  for  this  reason 
butts  of  sheer  strake  should  also  be  scarphed  and  edge- 
bolted  instead  of  being  butted  in  the  manner  that  planks 

.. ., Outside  plankui^-- , , 
,,--''       /    ( InteriuiL  oiecoj    ^-^      '---^ 


•r"         — *     -~     *  » »  »      ■      #  J^ 


j  \.^\.~^  tWrs^f>ftvVj^^^ 


" :  i/iteoJ.' 


of  other  strakes  are  joined.  On  Fig.  43  is  shown  a 
proper  method  of  scarphing  and  fastening  a  sheer  strake. 
The  scarph,  as  you  will  note,  is  a  nibbed  one  that  ex- 
tends across  three  frames  and  after  planks  are  fastened 
in  position  the  scarph  is  edge-bolted  between  frames,  the 
edge-bolts  passing  through  sheer  and  into  next  plank 
below.  * 

Sq".     The  Wales  (an  old  term) 

This  name  applies  to  an  assemblage  of  planks  that 
covers  the  frame  from  immediately  below  sheer  strakes 
(the  three  or  four  top  strakes  used  to  be  termed  sheer 
planking)  to  bilge  planking,  which  commences  at  or  near 
to  bilge.  The  term  is  seldom  used  by  shipbuilders  of 
the  new  school. 

The  wales  were  always  somewhat  thicker  than  the  rest 
of  planking  and  it  was  usual  to  designate  wale  strakes 
according  to  their  location.  Thus  the  wale  strakes  lo- 
cated where  channel  fastenings  are,  were  named  channel 
wales.  The  planks  below  were  named  the  main  wales, 
and  below  these  again  were  the  diminishing  strakes,  so 
called  because  it  was  here  the  planks  began  to  be  dimin- 
ished in  thickness  and  merge  into  bottom  planks  located 
immediately  below  the  diminishing  strakes  and  which 
filled  space  between  them  and  garboard  strakes. 

On  Fig.  -28  I  have  identified  the  various  assemblages 
of  planks  by  marking  names  against  them. 

New  Planking  Names 

The  present-day  method  of  planking  is  similar  to  the 
old  in  many  respects,  but  as  all  planks  between  sheer  and 
garboard  strake  are  alike  in  thickness  and  method  of 
fastening,  the  old  distinguishing  names  for  the  thicker 
planks  have  become  obsolete  and  now  all  planks  between 
top  of  garboard  and  bilge  are  known  as  bottom  plank- 
ing, and  that  from  bilge  to  under  side  of  sheer  as  top- 
side planking,  or  side  planking. 

On    Fig.    42a    illustration    shows    the   new   planking 
method  with  names  of  assemblage  of  planks  marked  for 
identification. 
8q*.     Caulking 

Caulking  is  the  operation  of  making  seams  of  planking 
watertight  by  forcing  oakum  into  the  seams  by  means  of 
a  caulking  iron  and  mallet.  In  caulking  the  thickness  of 
plank  regulates  the  quantity  of  oakum  that  should  be 
driven  into  each  seam  or  butt  joint.  The  following  table 
gives  number  of  threads  of  oakum  for  planks  from  10 
inches  down  to  i  inch  thick. 


Ijiij  ii  1^  w  i;»ji)  liis!)  j!iiai  |;S^  lij  p  tiiw 

Fig.  43 


Number  of 

Number  of 

Double  Threads  of 

Single  Thread 

Thick 

ness  of  Pis 

nk 

Oakum 

Spunyarn 

10 

inches 

13 

2 

B 

9 

12 

2 

0 

8 

II 

2 

0   . 

7 

10 

2 

.o_« 

6 

(( 

8 

2 

•n  c        J 
c  rt        1 

S 

tt 

6 

2 

«-5, 

4 

" 

5 

2 

<U 

3 

4 

I 

rt 

2j 

^2  " 

3 
2 

__ 

^ 

2 

tt 



I 

it 

I 

— 

ss 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Double  Threads,     Double  Threads.  White 


Deck. 


Black  Oakum 

Oakum  or  Cotton 

9  inches 
8      " 

II 
10 



5      "          ^ 

t   '■   ■ 

2/   " 

9 

7 
S 
4 
3 

2 

I 
I 
I 

I 

Single  Threads. 
Black  Oakum 

Single  Threads,  White 
Oakum  or  Cotton 

4  inches 

3 

I 

3      " 
2^  inches 

2 

2 

I 
I 

2           " 

I 

I 

In  order  that  the  proper  quantity  of  oakum  may  be 
driven  all  seams  to  be  caulked  are  made  tight  at  the 
bottom  and  open  at  surface.  This  is  .called  allowing  the 
seam. 

The  necessary  seam  for  plank  of  any  thickness  may 
be  found  by  drawing  two  lines,  lo  inches  long,  so  that 
they  meet  at  one  end,  and  are  yi  inch  apart  at  the  other ; 
if  the  thickness  of  plank  be  set  off  from  the  point  where 
lines  meet,  the  distance  lines  are  apart  at  this  place  will 
be  the  open  seam  that  must  be  allowed.  The  progressive 
manner  of  caulking  is,  by  first  driving  wedge-like  irons 
into  the  seams  to  open  them  on  the  surface.  This  opera- 
tion is  called  raiming  or  reeming.  After  this,  the  spun- 
yarn,  white  oakum  or  cotton,  is  driven,  if  any,  and  then 
the  number  of  black  threads,  which  are  then  hardened,  or 
what  is  called  horsed  up;  this  is  done  by  one  man  hold- 
ing, in  the  seam  upon  the  oakum,  an  iron,  fixed  in  a 
handle,  called  the  horse  iron,  and  another  driving  upon  it 
with  a  large  mallet,  called  a  beetle,  that  the  oakum  may 
be  made  as  firm  as  possible  and  be  below  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  plank.  It  is  of  importance,  in  order  to  give 
firmness  to  the  caulking,  and  to  prevent  decay,  that  the 
threads  be  driven  into  the  seam  as  far  as  possible,  or 
driven  home,  and  not  choked,  as  is  sometimes  the  case. 
The  whole  of  the  oakum  driven  should  form  a  wedge 
and  be  what  is  called,  well  bottomed. 

Ott  Fig.  44  are  shown  men  engaged  in  caulking  out- 
side planking  seams  of  a  vessel's  bottom. 

Inside  Planking  of  a  Vessel 

Sq".     Ceiling 

This  is  the  name  given  to  planking  that  covers  inside 
of  the  frames  of  a  vessel.  It  begins  below  clamps  and 
covers  the  entire  inside  of  frames  from  clamps  to  keel- 
son. 

On  Figs.  28,  43  and  43a  methods  of  fastening  the 
ceiling  are  clearly  shown  and  on  Fig.  42a  is  shown 
present-day  method  of  ceiling  a  vessel  which  I  will  now 
describe. 

Immediately  next  to  keelson  is  laid  the  limber  stroke, 
which  is  a  strake  of  ceiling  placed  in  such  a  position  that 
by  removing  portions  of  it  access  to  limber  chains  or 
watercourses  can  be  obtained.     (See  Fig.  28.) 

Immediately  next  to  limber  strake  begins  the  ceiling 


Fig.  44 

proper  and  this  extends  to  just  below  turn  of  bilge  where 
the  bilge  ceiling  begins.  The  bilge  ceiling  is  of  thicker 
material  than  ceiling  proper  and  extends  up  until  curve 
of  bilge  is  passed,  when  the  thinner  ceiling  again  begins 
and  extends  up  to  air  course  left  directly  under  clamps. 
Ceiling  extends  from  bow  to  stern,  is  put  on  in 
strakes  that  fit  tightly  against  one  another,  and  is  se- 
curely fastened  to  frames  and  filling,  some  of  the  fasten- 
ings going  through  both  frames  and  outside  planking. 
On  Fig.  43b  is  shown  interior  view  of  a  vessel  with 
bottom  ceiling  in  place. 

8q'.     Fastening  the  Planking 

It  is  necessary  to  describe  the  fastenings  both  outside 
and  inside  (ceiling)  planking  at  one  time  because  many 
of  the  fastenings  go  through  outer  plank,  frame,  and 
inner  plank.  Correct  fastening  of  planking  is  essential 
for  strength,  and  not  only  must  the  fastenings  be  ample 
in  number  and  of  proper  size,  but  they  must  be  properly 
located  and  driven. 

First  I  will  call  your  attention  to  a  most  important 
detail  of  fastening  frequently  overlooked  by  shipbuilders 
of  the  present-day. 

All  plank  fastenings  are  driven  through  holes  bored 
with  an  auger.  Up  to  within  the  last  year  or  so  these 
fastening  holes  were  bored  with  hand-operated  augers, 
and  the  regulations  for  proper  sizes  of  holes  (based  upon 
experience)  stipulated  that  holes  should  be  bored  %  inch 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


59 


Fig    43a.     Laying   Ceiling 

(for  i-inch  fastening)  smaller  than  fastening.  This  in- 
sured that  fastening  would  fit  tightly  into  hole  and  hold 
properly  after  it  was  driven.  This  regulation  for  fiand- 
bored  fastening  holes  is  absolutely  sound  and  correct,  but 
when  it  is  applied  to  machine-drilled  holes  it  is  incorrect 
and  results  in  fastenings  being  loose  and  insecure. 

When  a  fastening  hole  is  drilled  with  an  auger  at- 
tached to  an  air-driven  tool  the  auger  should  be  one  or 
two  sizes  SMALLER  than  the  one  used  for  boring  for 
same  sized  fastening  by  hand.  The  smaller  size  augei 
is  necessary  when  a  machine  is  used  because  the  higher 
speed  of  rotation,  coupled  with  the  difficulty  of  holding 
auger  perfectly  vertical  and  steady,  nearly  always  causes 
the  hole  to  assume  an  oblong  shape  and  to  become  slightly 
larger  than  size  of  auger. 

Whenever  a  fastening  hole  is  to  be  bored  with  a  ma- 
chine-operated auger  use  an  auger  one  size  smaller 
than  is  specified  for  hand-operated  augers. 

Two  kinds  of  fastenings  are  used  for  connecting 
planking  to  the  frame;  2vood  (called  treenails)  and 
metal  (copper,  composition  metal,  or  iron),  and  the  fasten- 
ings can  be  spaced  either  single,  double,  or  alternate 
single  and  double. 

By  single  fastening  is  meant  each  strake  having  one 
fastening  of  each  kind  into  each  frame;  by  double  fasten- 
ing is  meant  each  strake  having  two  fastenings  of  each 
kind  into  each  frame,  and  by  alternate  fastening  is  meant 
each  strake  having  one  fastening  of  each  kind  in  every 
other  frame  and  t\Vb  fastenings  of  each  kind  into  each 
frame  between  single  fastened  frames. 

On  Fig.  45  is  shown  sections  of  planking  with  single, 
double,  and  alternate  fastenings  through  each  strake. 
Before  the  advent  of  steel  ships  the  larger  wooden  ves- 
sels were  nearly  always  double  fastened,  medium-sized 
ones  were  double  fastened  above  water  and  alternate 
fastened  below,  and  the  smaller  ones  were  alternate 
fastened  above  water  and  single  fastened  below.     This 


practice  was  an  excellent  one  and  with  this  modification 
should  be  followed  in  these  days :  Wherever  fastenings 
of  knees,  clamps,  shelf,  pointers,  or  riders  pass  through 
frame  and  outer  planking  the  planking  fastenings  should 
be  only  sufficient  in  number  to  draw  planking  to  its  posi- 
tion against  frames. 

The  reason  for  this  modification  is:  The  through 
fastenings  of  parts  mentioned  must  have  a  clear' passage- 
way through  frames  and  must  have  proper  amount  of 
solid  wood  surrounding  them.  If  double  fastenings  of 
planking  are  driven  in  places  where  other  fastenings  must 
pass  through,  one  of  two  things  may  happen, — either  the 
additional  fastenings  will  cut  an  excessive  amount  of 
wood  from  frames  and  thus  weaken  the  frame,  or  else 
the  fastenings  of  planking  will  interfere  with  knee  and 
other  additional  fastenings. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  this  important  fact — treenail 
fastenings  resist  transverse  strains  better  than  metal,  but 
the  metal  will  better  resist  direct  separation  strains.  It 
therefore  is  apparent  that  a  wise  combination  of  the  two 
kinds  of  fastenings  is  most  desirable. 

As  the  inside  planking  (ceiling)  is  not  laid  at  the 
same  time  that  outside  planking  is  a  certain  proportion 
of  both  outer  and  inner  planking  fastenings  must  be 
driven  into  frames  only. 

The  usual  manner  of  fastening  is  somewhat  along 
these  lines :  The  outer  planking  is  first  fastened  with  a 
certain  number  of  metal    fastenings  that  pass  through 


Fig.   13b.     Edge   Bolting   Ceiling 


60 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Single  Fantening. 


~^  I'-i  M  M  n  r-1  rn  M  M  r^  i^-  ^^  M  M  ''H 


:o      :;o     ',   ',o      :io     :;o 


rjrfi^MAwnaijg 


^^^^    Iw^J    Iv^    1-^  twv^    t-vw^l    U-v^    U/iA^    ^,^A4    l-wW    U\^    ^J    tw\J    '"^    ^A^ 
X  Dump       *  0  Bolt. 

Fig.  45.     Planking  Fastenings 


planking  and  into  frames  for  about  two-thirds  of  their 
depth,  a  certain  number  of  treenail  fastenings  are  then 
driven  through  outer  planking  and  frames  and  wedged 
tight.  These  fastenings  are  only  sufficient  in  number 
to  securely  hold  planking  in  position  until  inner  plank- 
ing (ceiling)  is  wrought. 

The  ceiling  is  first  fastened  with  a  minimum  number 
of  short  fastenings  that  only  pass  through  ceiling  and 
into  frames.  After  ceiling  is  in  place  the  planking  fasten- 
ings that  go  through  outer  and  inner  planking  and  frame 
are  put  in,  the  metal  ones  being  clenched  and  the  wood 
ones  wedged. 

To  fasten  butts  through  bolts,  treenails  and  short 
welts  are  used.  Butts  are  usually  cut  upon  the  middle 
of  a  timber  and  are  fastened  with  one  treenail  and  one 
short  bolt  through  the  butt  of  each  plank  into  butt  tim- 
ber (timber  butt  is  cut  on)  and  one  through  bolt,  called 
a  butt  bolt,  in  timbers  nearest  to  butt  timber. 

On  Fig.  46  is  shown  a  properly  cut  and  fastened  butt 
and  below  the  illustration  are  given  rules  for  spacing 
butts. 

Now  a  few  words  about  wedging  treenails. 

After  treenails  are  driven  their  ends  are  cut  off  flush 
and  wedged  with  hardwood  wedges,  the  wedges  serving 
the  double  purpose  of  expanding  ends  of  treenails  and 
thus  increasing  resistance  to  separation  of  ^he  two  or 
three  pieces  of  material  that  the  treenails  fasten  together ; 
and  of  caulking  the  ends. 

Very  large  treenails  used  to  be  caulked  with  three 
wedges  forming  a  triangle,  and  small  ones  with  two 
wedges  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,. but  in  these 
days  the  practice  is  to  use  the  cross  wedges  on  very  large 
treenails  and  a  single  wedge  on  the  smaller  ones.  Tree- 
nails must  drive  tight,  meaning  by  this,  be  driven  through 
holes  that  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  treenail.  On 
Fig.  47  are  shown  a  number  of  treenails  ready  to  drive. 

8r.     The  Clamps 

The  clamps  are  two  or  three  thick  planks  extending 
the  whole  length  of  frame  and  located  immediately  under 
each  tier  of  deck  beams,  their  use  being  to  help  support 


deck  beams  and  add  strength  to  the  structure  along  point 
of  joining  of  a  deck  with  side  framing. 

In  sailing  vessels  the  deck  beams  very  often  rest 
directly  upon  clamps  and  are  fastened  to  them  and  to 
frame  of  vessel  with  hanging  knees.  These  knees  are 
shown  in  outline  on  Fig.  28. 

In  ships  driven  by  steam  and  in  many  of  the  larger 
sailing  crafts  the  clamps  form  a  backing  for  shelf  on 
which  the  deck  beams  rest. 

Each  tier  of  beams  has  its  clamps  and  shelf.  (See 
Fig.  28.) 

The  upper  edge  of  each  set  of  clamps  is  usually 
located  at  proper  height  to  allow  deck  beams  to  be  let 
in  about  one  inch,  or  if  it  is  not  intended  to  let  beams  in, 
the  upper  edge  is  placed  high  enough  for  beams  to  have 
a  full  bearing. 

If  maximum  strength  is  desired  clamps  should  be 
coaked  to  frames,  each  assemblage  of  clamps  should  be 
edge-bolted  between  timbers  and  butts  should  be  scarphed ; 
the  scarphs  being  sufficiently  long  to  extend  over  and 
fasten  to  three  frames.  All  scarphs  should  be  properly 
edge-bolted. 

Clamps  are  usually  first  fastened  to  frames  only,  and 
after  they  are  firmly  set  in  their  proper  position  addi- 
tional fastenings  that  go  through  outer  planking,  frame 
and  clamp,  are  driven  from  outside  and  clenched  on 
clamp. 

8r^.     Air  Course 

This  is  an  opening  left  immediately  under  lowest 
clamp  plank  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  air  to  circulate 
freely  around  the  frames.     (See  Fig.  28.) 

8s.    The  Shelf 

This  is  the  name  given  to  a  heavy  continuous  timber, 
or  a  combination  of  two  or  more  timbers,  that  extends 
from  bow  to  stern  at  each  tier  of  deck  beams  and  is 
fastened  to  inner  face  of  upper  clamps  in  a  position  that 
will  allow  deck  beams  to  have  a  full  width  bearing  on 
upper  face  of  shelf. 

On  Fig.  42a  the  shelf  is  shown  in  position  under 
a  deck  beam.  Shelf  timbers  are  usually  scarphed  in  the 
same  manner  that  clamps  are,  and  are  securely  fastened 
to  clamps,  frames  and  outer  planking. 

The  duty  of  a  shelf  is  to  resist  strains  tending  to  ex- 
tend the  vessel,  to  support  deck  beams  and  form  a  secure 
base  for  securing  them  to. 

8s\     Shelf  Fastenings 

Shelves  are  fastened  in  the  same  manner  that  clamps 
are  and,  in  addition,  they  are  fastened  to  clamps  with 
metal  fastenings  driven  through  shelf  and  into  at  least 
two  of  the  clamp  timbers.     (See  Fig.  42a.) 

8t.    Deck  Beams 

Deck  beams  are  horizontal  timbers  that  extend  across 
a  vessel  and  support  the  decking.     The  ends  of   deck 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


6i 


}  rs.  '  r 


m 


Fig.  46.     Butt  Fastenings 

beams  rest  upon  shelf  and  clamps  and  are  strengthened 
by  means  of  hanging  knees  (vertical  knees),  one  end 
of  which  fastens  to  beams  and  the  other  to  clamps,  ceil- 
ing, and  frames  at  side.  In  addition  to  these  hanging 
knees  a  certain  number  of  horizontal  ones,  called  lodge 
knees,  are  fastened  at  designated  positions  throughout 
length  of  vessel.  On  Fig.  28  the  vertical  knees  are 
shown  in  place,  and  on  Fig.  27  is  shown  some  lodge 
knees. 

Along  center  line  of  vessel  the  deck  beams  are  sup- 
ported by  pillars  or  stanchions  that  have  their  lower  ends 
firmly  resting  on  and  secured  to  keelson  and  their  upper 
ends  secured  to  a  longitudinal  deck  stringer  and  to  the 
beams.  Separate  longitudinal  stringers  and  stanchions 
are  fitted  between  each  tier  of  beams,  and  the  stanchions 
of  each  tier  are  always  located  immediately  over  one 
another.  Thus  the  whole  center  line  of  deck  framing  is 
supported  and  tied  longitudinally  and  to  the  keel  struc- 
ture. 

In  some  vessels  the  ends  of  stanchions  are  kneed  to 
deck  frames  and  to  keelson,  and  in  others  they  are  secured 
with  deck  straps.  (See  Fig.  50  for  method  of  using 
strap  at  upper  end  and  knee  at  keelson.) 

Sometimes  a  system  of  supports  and  diagonal  fore- 
and-aft  bracing,  or  trussing,  is  used  between  orlop  deck 
beams  and  keelson,  and  sometimes  a  fore-and-aft  longi- 
tudinal bulkhead  with  openings  through  it,  at  stated  in- 
tervals, extends  from  keelson  to  orlop  deck  beams.  The 
supports  above  orlop  deck  are  in  both  these  methods  of 
construction  stanchions  fitted  as  already  described. 

In  some  steam-driven  vessels  longitudinal  stringers 
are  located  in  line  with  the  outboard  sides  of  hatch  open- 
ings and  practically  form  a  part  of  hatch  framing.  In 
vessels  constructed  in  this  manner  it  is  usual  to  place 
sister  keelsons  immediately  below  these  side  stringers  and 
to  erect  stanchions  between  the  sister  keelsons  and  longi- 
tudinal stringers. 

In  many  cases  it  is  necessary  to  join  two  or  more 
pieces  of  timber  together  to  form  a  deck  beam.  When 
this  is  done  the  beam  is  termed  a  two.  or  three-piece  beam 
and  the  scarphing  is  done  in  one  of  the  ways  shown  on 
Plate  Vile. 

When  laying  out  a  scarph  for  a  deck  beam  it  is  essen- 
tial that  length  of  scarph  be  sufficient  to  insure  that  joint 
(scarph)  has  ample  strength  when  fastenings  are  in 
place. 

Below  I  give  a  brief  list  of  suitable  dimensions  for 
beam  scarphs  and  fastenings  of  beams  about  40  feet  in 
length. 


Quart'd  Deck 

Orlop  Deck 

Lower  Deck 

Upper  Deck 

and  Forec'tle 

Name 

Beams 

Beams 

Beams 

Beams 

Length  of 

scarph 

8  feet 

7-8  ft. 

7—8  ft. 

8—7  ft. 

Depth  of  lip 

3  inches 

3  inches 

3  inches 

3  inches 

Bolts  in  lip 

2  of  Ys" 

2  of   Vi" 

2  of  Yi" 

2  of  Yi" 

Bolts  in  middle 

3  of  i%" 

3  of  i%" 

3  of  I" 

3  of  Ys" 

Through  Ends 

4  of  1K2" 

4  of  iVa" 

4  of  lY," 

4  of  iYa" 

8t\     Fastening  the  Knees  and  Deck  Beams 

Deck  beams  are  fastened  to  shelf  with  bolts  that  pass 
through  beams  into  shelf  and  are  riveted  along  under- 
side of  shelf. 

The  hanging  knees  are  fitted  to  underside  of  beams 
and  to  side  of  vessel  and  fastened  with  through  rivets 
driven  at  varying  angles.  On  Fig.  50  knee  fastenings  are 
clearly  shown.  When  designating  parts  of  hanging  knees 
the  proper  terms  to  use  are: 

The  Arm. — Meaning  by  this  the  end  of  knee  fitted 
against  beam. 

The  Bady. — Meaning  the  portion  of  end  of  knee  fitted 
against  clamps. and  side  of  vessel. 

Lodge  or  lodging  knees  usually  have  their  arms  fitted 
against  side  of  beam  and  body  fitted  against  clamp.  The 
fastenings' of  lodge  knee  arms  are  bolts  that  pass  through 
arm  of  knee  and  beams,  and  of  body  bolts  that  pass 
through  knee,  clamp  and  frame. 

Fastenings  of  knees  are  designated  as  being  either  in- 
and-out,  or  fore-and-aft,  depending  upon  whether  they 
are  driven  through  side  of  vessel  or  through  the  beam. 
Those  used  to  fasten  body  of  knee  to  side  are  termed 
in-and-out  bolts  and  those  used  to  fasten  arm  of  knee  to 
beams  are  termed  fore-and-aft. 

There  are  usually  from  five  to  seven  in-and-out  bolts 


Fig.    17.     Tieenalls   Beady   to   Drive   Into    Ceiling   Frame   and   Flanking 


62 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 

—ARRANGEMENT  Of  IRON  STRAPPING  — 


riAONSTRAP^W* 


SE.CTION    SHOWlNSIRQWaTPapplMg 
VXWMPPEP  ABOUND  BILSE.  *.BECU«F.B 

TOPi-ooR  tiivipi.e:r 


Fig.  49.     Diagonal  Straps 


used  in  a  hanging  knee,  each  bolt  being  driven  at  an 
angle  that  will  cause  it  to  take  the  shortest  distance  be- 
tween knee  and  outside  of  planking.  All  but  one  or  two 
of  these  bolts  are  driven  from  the  outside  and  clenched 
on  inside,  and  all  in-and-out  fastenings  are  driven,  and 
knee  secured  to  side  of  vessel,  before  the  fore-and-aft 
fastenings  are  driven  and  secured.  This  is  done  to  in- 
sure that  knee  fits  snug  against  side  of  vessel. 

The  fore-and-aft  fastenings  should  consist  of  from 
three  to  five  bolts  passing  through  both  knee  and  beam. 

The  in-and-out  bolts  in  lodging  knees  should  never 
be  fewer  than  one  in  each  timber,  and  the  knees  should  be 
sufficiently  long  to  cross  at  least  four  timbers.  If  an  ex- 
ceptionally strong  job  of  work  is  desired  the  fore-and-aft 
bolt  fastenings  should  be  reinforced  by  using  circular 
coaks.  On  Table  VHP  is  entered  the  minimum  number 
of  pairs  of  hanging  knees  to  use  in  vessels  of  named 
tonnage.  Table  VHP 

Number  of  Hanging  Knees 


To  Hold 

To  Upper 

To  Hold 

To  Upper 

Beams 

Deck  Beams 

Beams 

Deck  Beams 

Tons 

Paira 

Pairs 

Tons 

Pairs 

Pairs 

150 

— 

4 

600 

10 

14 

200 

4 

6 

650 

10 

15 

250 

5 

7 

700 

II 

16 

300 

6 

8 

750 

II 

17 

350 

7 

9 

800 

12 

18 

400 

8 

10 

900 

13 

20 

450 

8 

II 

1000 

14 

22 

500 

9 

12 

1 100 

15 

24 

550 

9 

13 

1.150 

17 

26 

8t-.     The  Framing   of  Decks 

The  framing  of  deck  consists  of  athwartships  beams, 
half -beams,  longitudinal  carlings  and  ledges.  Dimensions 
of  beams  vary  with  their  length.  On  Table  VHP  is  given 
dimensions  of  beams,  and  method  of  framing  is  clearly 
shown  on  Figs.  27,  28,  42a  and  50. 

In  general  one  half-sized  beam  is  placed  between  each 
two  main  beams  except  in  spaces  between  beams  that 
form  the  hatchways  and  around  masts,  where  there  are 
generally  two  half-beams  placed  between  each  two  beams. 

All  deck  beams  should  be  crowned,  those  of  the  upper 
decks  having  the  greatest  amount  of  crown. 

Deck  beams  are  crowned  because  the  crown  causes 
water  to  quickly  flow  to  the  waterways,  where  it  passes 
clear  through  the  scuppers  and  in  addition  to  this  trans- 
verse strength  is  increased  by  crowning  beams,  especially 
if,  as  is  sometimes  done,  the  beams  are  crowned  while 
being  placed  in  position. 

It  is  advantageous  to  let  ends  of  beams  into  shelf  in 
the  manner  shown  on  Fig.  42a. 

8t^.     Framing  of  a  Hatchway 

Fig.  27  clearly  illustrates  the  proper  way  to  frame  a 
hatchway  of  a  medium-sized  vessel.  In  larger  vessels 
the  center  line  longitudinal  deck  stringer  mentioned  in 
paragraph   8th   extends   longitudinally   across   hatchway 


WOODEN     SHIPBUILDING 


6j 


Fig.  50.     Construction  Flan  of  Section  of  Steam  Trawler  by  Cox  &  Stevens 


practically  dividing  it  into  two  portions,  and  when  the 
side  longitudinal  stringers  are  used  they  form  a  support 
for  the  coaming. 

Sf*.     Framing  of  Mast  Partners 

Mast  partners  is  the  name  given  to  the  framing 
around  hole  in  deck  through  which  mast  passes.  The 
framing  must  be  strong  and  solid  because  it  has  to  with- 
stand the  strains  of  both  mast  and  bitts  that  are  generally 
placed  close  to  a  mast  in  sailing  vessels. 

On  Fig.  27  is  shown  the  usual  method  of  framing  a 
mast  partner  of  a  sailing  vessel. 

8t*.     Framing  of  Decks  Around  Stem  and  Stern 

At  stem  the  deck  framing  of  each  deck  terminates  in 
a  solid  block  of  wood,  or  a  natural  knee,  called  a  breast- 
hook.  This  breasthook  is  securely  fastened  to  stem  and 
apron  and  to  the  clamps  it  rests  against,  the  fastenings 


through  clamps  passing  through  knightheads,  fra'me  and 
planking.  The  tops  of  breasthooks  are  rounded  to  the 
same  crown  that  has  been  given  to  deck  beams. 

On  Fig.  51  is  shown  details  of  forward  deck  framing 
and  on  Fig.  52  is  shown  some  wood  and  steel  knees  used 
when  framing  a  vessel. 

Around  the  stern  it  is  necessary  to  have  solid  wood 
to  receive  the  deck  and  fastening.  If  the  vessel  has  a 
transom  stern  the  upper  transom  is  always  shaped  and 
rabbeted  to  receive  ends  of  deck  planks  and  their  fasten- 
ings. If  an  elliptical  stern  the  upper  piece  of  stern  fram- 
ing is  shaped  to  receive  deck  ends  and  their  fastenings. 
St".  Framing  of  Decks  under  Deck  Winches,  Capstans 
and  Anchor  Engine 

It  is  always  necessary  to  strengthen  the  deck  frame 
at  and  around  locations  of  deck  winches,  anchor  windlass 
and  capstans.     This  is  done  by  filling  in  between  the  deck 


64 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


beams  and  supporting  this  tilling  by  bolting  longitudinal 
planks  to  the  deck  beams  it  crosses.  The  filling  and 
planks  should  extend  some  distance  outside  the  space  that 
will  be  occupied  by  deck  windlass  or  other  piece  of  equip- 
ment, and  of  course  the  filling  must  cover  the  entire 
space  between  under  side  of  deck  and  upper  surface  of 
the  supporting  planks.  The  deck  is  laid  on  this  filling 
and  after  deck  is  finished  and  caulked  wood  foundation 
timbers  are  fitted  on  deck,  the  upper  surface  of  these  being 
arranged  to  receive  the  holding  down  bolts  of  windlass 
or  other  piece  of  equipment. 

When  the  piece  of  equipment  is  very  heavy  supporting 
stanchions  are  added  under  the  deck  beams. 

8u.     The  Waterways 

The  waterways  are  pieces  of  timber  that  rest  on  deck 
beams  and  fit  in  angle  made  by  deck  beams  and  side  of 
vessel.  Waterways  extend  from  forward  to  after  ends 
of  each  deck,  are  worked  to  the  shape  of  inside  of  vessel 
and  are  securely  fastened  to  deck  beams  and  shelf  or 
clamps  beneath  the  beams ;  they  should  be  edge-bolted  into 
frames. 

In  some  vessels  filling-in  pieces  are  fitted  to  fill  the 
space  between  shelf  and  top  of  beams  and  from  side  of 
ship  to  where  inner  edge  of  waterway  will  be  located. 
When  this  is  done  the  waterways  can  be  fastened  to  shelf 
between  beams  and  thus  additional  strength  is  gained. 

Waterways  are  always  made  of  thicker  material  than 
the  deck,  and  scarphs  of  waterways  should  always  be 
vertical,  have  nibbed  ends,  or  be  hooked,  and  be  edge- 
bolted. 

On  Fig.  28  is  shown  a  detail  of  waterway  construc- 


Fig.   61.     Bow   Framing 


Fig.  52 

tion  and  method  of  fastening,  and  on  Figs.  26,  53,  and 
54  waterways  are  shown  fitted  in  place  alongside  frames. 
8u^.     Lock  or  Thick  Strokes 

These  are  strakes  of  decking  that  adjoin  the  water- 
ways. They  are  thicker  than  deck  proper  and  are  joggled 
over  beams.  This  joggle  is  clearly  shown  on  Fig.  42a. 
These  strakes  extend  from  bow  to  stem  and  are  fastened 
vertically  with  two  fastenings  through  every  beam,  and 
horizontally  with  one  bolt  in  every  second  timber.  (Note 
it  is  usual  to  leave  room  for  these  fastenings  by  omitting 
a  fastening  from  every  frame  to  which  thick  strakes  will 
be  fastened.) 
8u^.    Decking 

The  upper  or  main  deck  planking  should  be  composed 
of  clear  straight-grained  material  put  on  in  greatest 
obtainable  lengths.  Deck  planks  are  usually  worked  fore- 
and-aft  and  the  laying  is  begun  at  or  near  to  center  line 
of  vessel.  The  ends  of  deck  planks  that  butt  against 
thick  or  lock  strakes  of  waterways  should  be  let  into 
thick  strake  about  2  inches,  thus  eliminating  a  feather 
edge  and  giving  a  good  seam  for  caulking.  On  Fig.  55 
the  ends  of  deck  planks  are  shown  let  into  thick  strake 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


05 


Fig.   oS.      Deck  framing  and   Waterways 

of  waterway.  Deck  planks  are  laid  with  seams  for  caulk- 
ing and  are  fastened  to  beams  with  at  least  two  spikes 
into  each  beam. 

Butts  are  square  cut  on  center  of  a  beam  and  should 


be  bolted.  Rules  for  spacing  butts  of  deck  planks  and 
caulking  seams  conform  to  those  laid  down  for  outer 
planking  of  frames. 

Table  VHP 
Siding  and  Moulding  of  Beams 


Length  of 

Hold  Beams 

-•              Deck 

Beams 

Beam 

Sided  and                  Moulded  at 

Sided  and 

Moulded  at 

Amidships 

Moulded                       Ends 

Moulded 

Ends 

Ft. 

In.                                 In. 

In. 

In. 

10 

4/. 

3^ 

II 

5 

4 

12 

5'/4 

454 

13 

hA 

4/2 

'4 

5J4 

454 

15 

"i"           m 

6% 

554 

i6 

8/2           7 

6/2 

S/2 

17 

m           rA 

6J4 

5/2 

i8 

9^              iVa 

7 

554 

19 

9%                  8 

7% 

6 

20 

10                 syi 

7A 

(>y* 

21 

io'/4               8>4 

7J4 

6A 

22 

10^               9  ■ 

8 

6/2 

23 

II                  9^ 

^Va, 

6M 

24 

II J4                  954 

8/2 

7  ^ 

25 

11V4                   9% 

8/2 

yVA 

26 

12                      10 

8^ 

7% 

27 

12^                  1054 

9 

7'A 

28 

I2l'i                           10^ 

9 

7V^ 

29 

12^4               I0J4 

•9J4 

7H 

30 

13                  II 

9/2 

8 

31 

i3'/4                ii'/4 

9/2 

8 

32 

1354                   ii'/4 

9J4 

sVa 

33 

13^            1 1/2 

10 

f4 

34 

14                11^ 

10 

81/2 

35 

I4'/4                         12 

I0'4 

8/2 

36 

WA               1254 

10^ 

8/2 

37 

1434                         12Vi 

10^ 

8)4 

38 

15                  12^ 

loYi 

854 

39 

15^               12^ 

I0'/4 

9 

40 

155^               13 

10^ 

9 

Fig.    54. 


Showing   Waterways   in    Main    Deck    Forward    of   Auxiliary 
Scbooner 


Fig.  55.     Ends  of  Deck  Let  Into  Waterways 


Chapter  IX 

Building  Slips  and  Launching  Ways 


9a.     Building  Slip  Foundation 

The  ground  upon  which  a  vessel  is  built  is  termed 
the  building  slip,  or  berth,  and  the  fixed  timbers  that 
carry  vessel  from  building  slip  into  the  water  are  called 
launching  ways. 

Both  building  slip  and  ways  must  have  a  firm  founda- 
tion and  be  laid  at  proper  inclinations;  and  one  of  the 
most  important  details  in  connection  with  laying  out  a 
shipyard  is  correct  planning  and  construction  of  building 
slips  and  ways. 

The  first  essential  is  that  the  foundation  be  sufficiently 
solid  to  bear  the  maximum  load  that  will  have  to  be  car- 
ried, and  this  solidity  must  be  alike  for  the  entire  length 
and  width  of  building  slip  and  ways. 

The  universally  adopted  and  most  practical  method 
of  getting  the  necessary  solidity  of  foundation  in  a  small 
shipyard  is  to  drive  a  sufficient  number  of  rows  of  piles 
into  the  ground  at  proper  locations  to  support  keel  block- 
ing, ways  and  staging,  spacing  them  as  close  as  neces- 
sary to  attain  the  desired  end.  The  tops  of  the  piles  are 
then  cut  off  at  proper  height  and  capped  with  timbers, 
placed  at  right  angles  to  launching  direction,  extending 
sufficiently  far  out  each  side  of  keel  position  to  cover 
keel  and  launching  way  piles  and  allow  all  bilge,  bottom, 
and  staging  supports  to  be  placed  on  them. 


When  constructing  a  building  slip  of  this  kind  the 
ground  is  leveled  to  some  desirable  inclination  and  piles 
driven  and  cut  off  to  inclination  selected  for  slip,  then 
the  athwartships  caps  are  placed  over  piles  and  fastened 
and  slip  filled  in  with  cinders,  or  other  suitable  material, 
to  a  proper  height  to  make  a  good  platform  for  the  men 
working  under  vessel  during  construction. 

Very  often  the  portion  of  shp  from  land  end  down  to 
where  stem  of  vessel  will  be  when  being  built  is  filled 
in  level  with  top  of  caps,  then  from  this  point  to  a  little 
below  the  low-water  level  the  slip  is  floored  over  for 
about  three-quarters  of  its  width.  From  the  low-water 
level  the  slip  extends  into  water  a  sufficient  distance  to 
give  the  required  launching  depth  of  water  over  ends  of 
launching  ways,  this  portion  of  slip  consisting  of  rows  of 
piles,  to  act  as  bearers  for  launching  ways,  cut  off  at 
proper  inclination  and  height  and  capped  longitudinally. 
Cross  capping  is  not  generally  used  here,  because  it  is 
likely  to  interfere  with  launching  of  vessel.  Fig.  56 
shows  plan  of  such  a  building  slip. 

9b.     Inclination  of  Slip,' 

While  the  contour  of  ground  upon  which  a  building 
slip  is  placed,  the  length  of  ground  available  for  the  land 


.i'. 


o  ,- 


yC 


'-■-^  ^' 


d  ^    \   <•>   -\r-      O  , 


-  ''-fiSit 


Tig.  66 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


67 


Fig.   57.     Steel   and   Concrete   Building   Slips,   N.   Y.   Shipbuilding   Comp  any,  Camden,  N.  J 


end  of  slip,  depth  of  water  at  end  of  slipway,  and  width 
of  channel  available  for  free  launching  purposes,  are 
things  that  must  be  carefully  considered  when  selecting 
the  most  suitable  inclination  for  building  slip,  the  inclina- 
tion that  keel  will  be  laid  at,  and  inclination  of 
launching  ways  necessary  to  insure  a  successful  launch- 
ing of  the  largest  and  smallest  vessels  likely  to  be  built 
upon  the  slip  must  also  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the 
problem. 

The  nearer  the  longitudinal  inclination  of  slip  is  to  the 
average  inclination  of  launching  ways  the  better.  An 
inclination  of  about  4°  to  the  horizon  seems  to  be  ex- 
cellent for  slips  that  are  used  for  the  construction  of 
vessels  of  moderate  tonnage  and  length. 

In  reality  the  inclination  of  slip  floor  is  a  matter  of 
minor  importance  so  long  as  the  inclination  is  one  that 
will  give  a  good  working  platform  for  men  and  permit 
proper  shoring  and  securing  of  keel  blocks  and  launch- 
ing ways. 

On  slips  constructed  in  manner   described,  the  keel 

blocking  and  launching  ways  are  set  up  for  vessel  and 

arranged  at  inclinations  that  are  considered  most  suitable. 

A  more  costly  kind  of  building  slip  is  constructed  in 

this  manner: 


After  the  ground  is  piled  in  manner  already  explained 
the  piles  are  cut  off  at,  or  near  to,  the  average  launching 
inclination  and  sufficiently  low  down  to  bring  top  of  cap 
timbers  a  few  inches  below  the  desired  level  of  build- 
ing slip  floor.  The  cap  timbers  are  then  used  as  supports 
for  a  flooring  which  is  laid,  longitudinally,  over  that 
portion  of  slip,  except  its  center  where  keel  will  come, 
that  is  above  the  low-water  level. 

The  longitudinal  planking  of  slip  floor  that  comes 
near  places  where  launching  ways  will  be  laid  is  generally 
made  out  of  much  heavier  material  than  floor  proper 
and  forms  a  permanent  longitudinal  stringer,  or  founda- 
tion, on  which  the  launching  ways  can  be  laid. 

The  portion  of  slip  below  low-water  point  is  con- 
structed in  manner  already  described. 

A  still  more  costly  and  permanent  style  of  building 
slip  is  one  constructed  on  concrete  foundations  set  on 
piles  cut  off  some  distance  below  the  level  of  ground. 

Slips  constructed  in  this  manner  are  generally  covered 
with  a  steel  structure  and  fitted  with  traveling  overhead 
crane  for  handling  material  used  in  the  construction  of 
vessels. 

Fig-  57  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  a  slip  of  this 
kind. 


68 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Thousands  of  Piles  Are  Driven  Into  the  Marsh  on  Which  to  Build  the  Piers.     The  Picture  on  the  Left  Shows  the  Piling  Tor  Pier  and  That  on 

the  Bight  Shows  Pier  Completed  and  Beady  For  Use 


In  all  cases  when  laying  out  a  building  slip  it  is  very 
necessary  to  carefully  plan  for  economical  moving  and 
placing  of  construction  material  in  position  on  vessel. 

For  a  small  shipyard  one  of  the  most  economical 
methods  of  doing  this  is  to  lay  rails  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  slip  and  from  slip  to  places  in  yard  where  the 
material  will  be  converted  and  got  ready  for  erection. 
Then  by  using  a  traveling  hoist  of  sufficient  capacity  the 
heaviest  piece  of  material  can  be  moved  and  lifted  into 
position  without  having  to  use  costly  hand  labor.  If  a 
method  of  this  kind  is  used,  level  runways  for  the  rails 
on  which  hoist  will  travel  must  be  erected  each  side  of 
slip  and  sufficient  space  allowed  between  adjacent  slips 
to  permit  hoist  to  pass  between  the  vessels  and  be 
properly  operated. 

The  number  of  piles  required  for  a  slip  will  vary 
with  nature  of  ground  and  weight  of  vessel  to  be  carried 
and  should  be  carefully  calculated  before  commencing 
work. 

9c.     Information  About  Piles 

Piles  are  made  from  trunks  of  trees  and  should  be 
straight  and  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter  for  light 
foundation  or  9  inches  for  heavy  ones.  The  woods 
generally  used  for  piles  in  the  Northern  States  are  oak, 
spruce,  hemlock,  Norway  pine,  Georgia  pine,  and  occa- 
sionally elm,  gum  and  bass  wood.  In  Southern  States 
oak,  Georgia  pine  and  cypress  is  extensively  used.  While 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  much  difference  in  the 
durability  of  these  woods  under  water,  oak  makes  the 
most  satisfactory  piles  and  next  to  it  the  ones  made  of  the 
hardest  wood.  This  is  especially  so  if  the  ground  is  hard 
and  driving  is  difficult. 

All  piles  should  be  cut  from  growing  timber,  should 
be  butt  cuts  and  only  have  bark  peeled  and  knots  trimmed. 
It  is  probably  best  to  remove  the  bark  though  there  is 
some  difference  of  opinion  on  this  point.  The  specified 
sizes  are  diameters  at  stated  distance  from  ends,  and 
length.    Oak  piles  should  be  of  either  white,  burr  or  post 


oaks;  they  should  not  have  over  2  inches  of  sap  wood  and 
should  be  at  least  9  inches  in  diameter  at  6  feet  from  butt 
for  piles  less  than  28  feet  and  12  inches  in  diameter  for 
piles  30  feet  and  over  and  the  taper  should  be  uniform 
and  gradual  from  butt  to  top,  the  top  being  not  less  than 
five-eighths  of  greatest  diameter. 

Norway  and  tamarack  piles  should  not  be  less  than  10 
inches  diameter  for  a  30  foot,  14  inches  for  a  36  foot, 
and  16  inches  for  a  40  foot  at  butt. 

Cedar  piles  30  feet  long  should  not  be  less  than  14 
inches  in  diameter  at  butt. 

Piles  are  prepared  for  driving  by  sawing  ends  square 
and  pointing  the  lower  end,  or  by  capping  the  upper  end 
and  shoeing  the  lower  should  the  hardness  of  ground  and 
length  of  piles  warrant  doing  this. 

In  soft  ground  a  square-ended  pile  seems  to  drive 
better  and  straighter  than  one  that  has  been  pointed. 

When  driving  into  compact  soil,  such  as  gravel  or  stiff 
clay,  the  lower  end  of  pile  should  be  pointed  and  shod 
with  iron. 

And  in  cases  when  the  ground  is  so  hard  that  pile 
drives  less  than  6  inches  at  each  blow  the  head  should  be 
capped  with  a  ring  of  iron  to  prevent  its  splitting. 

The  usual  method  of  driving  piles  is  by  a  succession 
of  blows  given  with  a  block  of  cast  iron  which  slides  up 
and  down  between  long  uprights  mounted  on  a  machine 
called  a  pile  driver.  The  machine  is  moved  over  the 
place  where  pile  is  to  be  driven,  the  pile  is  placed  under 
hammer,  small  end  down,  and  held  there  while  the  machine 
lifts  the  weight  (called  the  hammer)  to  required  distance 
above  pile  and  then  lets  it  drop  on  pile.  The  hammer  is 
raised  by  steam  power  and  dropped  by  releasing  a  catch 
when  it  has  reached  tiie  desired  height. 

The  weight  of  hammers  used  for  driving  piles  for 
slipways  is  between  1,200  and  2,000  lb  and  the  fall 
varies  from  5  feet  to  20  feet  or  over. 

When  driving  piles  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  them 
plumb  and  to  regulate  the  drop  of  hammer  to  suit  nature 
of  soil.     When  soil  is  mud  penetration  becomes  small,  the 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


6g 


The   Ficturo   on  the    Left   Shows   the   Ground   on    Whi:h   Shiyways   Now   Stand, 


That  on  the  Right  Shows  the  Shlpways   Completed. 


fall  should  be  lessened  and  blows  given  in  rapid  succes- 
sion. When  a  pile  refuses  to  drive  before  it  has  reached 
the  required  depth  it  should  be  cut  off  and  another  pile 
driven  close  alongside. 

A  pile  that  has  been  driven  to  a  depth  of  20  feet  over 
and  then  refuses  to  move  under  several  blows  of  the 
hammer  falling  about  15  feet  can  be  considered  satis- 
factory. 

The  most  reliable  way  to  ascertain  the  carrying  power 
of  piles  is  by  actual  experiment  with  piles  driven  into 
the  ground  where  the  slip  is  to  be  built.  This  experi- 
ment can  be  made  by  driving  about  two  piles  a  selected 
distance  apart,  connecting  them  together  and  building  a 
rigid  platform  on  top.  Then  by  loading  platform  until 
the  weight  begins  to  sink  piles  further  into  the  ground 
the  maximum  carrying  weight  per  square  foot  of  surface, 
or  per  pile,  will  be  ascertained.  This  carrying  weight 
must  be  in  excess  of  the  requirements. 

The  carrying  weight  value  of  piling  can  be  determined 
with  a  sufficient  degree  of  accuracy  for  ordinary  condi- 
tions by  making  use  of  this  formula: 

2  W  H 

Safe  carrying  load  in  pounds  =^  

S  +  I 
W  =  Weight  of  hammer  in  pounds. 
H  ^=  fall  of  hammer  in  feet. 

S  =  average  penetration  of  pile  in  ground  during 
last  five  blows. 

Assuming  that  a   1,000- lb  hammer  is  used  and  that 
average  penetration  for  last  five  blows  is  6  inches  and 
fall  is  15  feet,  the  safe  load  for  pile  is  4,286  lb. 
2  X  1,000  X  15  30,000 

= =  4,286  lb. 

6+1  7 

This  rule  is  a  fairly  accurate  one  to  use  when  aver- 
age conditions  pi'evail,  but  it  must  be  recognized  that 
nature  of  soil  largely  determines  length  of  pile  necessary. 
The    following   table   of    bearing   value    of   piles    in 
various  kinds  of  soils  will  prove  of  value  as  a  guide: 


Nature 
of  Soil 


Length  of 

Pile  in 

Feet 


Average 
Penetration 
in  In.  Last 
Five  Blows. 

Inches 


Load  in 
Tons  Pile 
Carried. 

Tons 

...  6 
...  7 

...  9 
. .  .12 
. .  .12 
...18 


Average  Dia. 

in  Inches 

Whole 

Length. 

Inches 

Mud 30 8 2     ... 

Soft  earth   30 8 i!^... 

Soft  clay   30 8 i     ... 

Quicksand    30 8 ^2..- 

Firm  earth    30 8 Yi-  ■  ■ 

Sand    20 8 Solid. 

Gravel    15 8 Solid 18 

It  is  safe  to  say  this :  No  pile  should  be  less  than  5 
inches  in  diameter  at  small  end  and  10  inches  at  large 
for  20  feet  length  of  driving,  or  12  inches  for  30  feet, 
and  no  pile  should  be  expected  to  carry  more  than 
18  tons,  even  under  the  best  conditions  of  ground  and 
location. 

Piles  for  foundations  of  building  slips  should  not  be 
spaced  closer  than  2  feet  6  inches.  If  spaced  closer  than 
this  there  is  danger  of  the  ground  being  broken  up  and 
holding  power  of  adjacent  piles  lessened.  A  good  plan 
is  to  use  two,  three,  or  four  rows  of  piles  under  center 
of  slip  to  act  as  supports  for  keel  blocks;  two,  three,  or 
four  more  closely  spaced  rows  each  side  to  form  supports 
for  launching  ways,  and  additional  intermediate  and  out- 
side piles  if  ground  is  soft  and  weight  to  be  carried  is 
excessive. 

Of  course  the  cross  caps  will  connect  these  rows  of 
piles  and  make  a  level  and  evenly  supported  athwartships 
bearing  surface  for  keel  blocks  and  launching  ways. 

The  longitudinal  spacing  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
weight  to  be  carried  and  length  of  vessel  that  will  be 
built  on  ship,  but  it  should  always  be  remembered  that 
spacing  must  be  sufficiently  close  to  allow  two  cross  caps 
to  be  used  as  supports  for  the  lower  pieces  of  each  keel 
block  in  cases  where  blocking  has  to  be  sufficiently  high 
to  warrant  cribbing  it. 

9d.     Length  .^nd  Width  of  Building  Slips 

The  length  of  that  portion  of  the  building  slip  that 
is  above  high-water  mark  should  be  at  least  one  and  a 
half  times  the  length  of  longest  vessel  that  will  be  con- 
structed on  slip ;  and  there  must  always  be  sufficient  dis- 


70 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Tig.    58.      Three    Wooden    Ships ,  That    Were    Launched    From   the    L. 
Shattuck,  Inc.,  Yard  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 


H. 


tance  between  stern-post  and  water  to  allow  vessel  to 
attain  a  safe  launching  velocity  before  it  reaches  a  depth 
of  water  sufficient  to  reduce  speed  to  a  point  where  the 
slightest  obstruction  might  cause  vessel  to  stick  on  ways. 
The  distance  that  longitudinal  underwater  portion  of  slip 
extends  out  must  be  sufficient  to  give  firm  support  to 
launching  ways  until  vessel  becomes  water-borne,  or 
"tips."  Therefore  determine  launching  draught  of  the 
largest  vessel  likely  to  be  built  on  slip,  and  have  the 
ends  of  slipway  extend  out  a  sufficient  distance  from 
shore  to  give  more  than  the  required  depth  of  water 
when  tipping  occurs.  The  tipping  can  be  considered  to 
occur  when  the  longitudinal  center  of  vessel  is  over  ends 
of  way.     Fig.  56  outer  end  of  landing  ways. 

The  width  of  building  slip  must  be  sufficient  to  permit 
the  building  of  the  widest  vessel,  the  erection  of  proper 
staging,  and  the  handling  of  material  on  each  side. 

Four  important  width  measures  must  be  selected. 

1st. — The  width  of  blocking  necessary  to  support  keel. 

2d. — The  width  required  for  launching  ways  and  dis- 
tance the  center  of  ways  will  be  out  from  center  line  of 
keel. 

3d. — The  extreme  width  of  slip  necessary  for  erecting 
staging  around  vessel. 

4th. — The  additional  width  required  for  handling 
material  along  sides  of  slip. 

The  first  can  be  considered  to  be  about  4  feet,  there- 
fore, piles  should  be  sufficiently  closely  spaced  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  slip,  for  2  feet  each  side  of  its 
center  line,  to  carry  all  the  weight  that  must  be  supported 
on  keel  blocks  during  construction. 

Launching  ways  are  generally  placed  about  one-third 
extreme  breadth  of  a  vessel  apart.  So  consider  that  one- 
sixth  the  width  of  widest  vessel  likely  to  be  built  on  slip 
as  distance  that  center  of  launching  ways  supporting 
piles  must  be  out  from  center  line  of  slip  and  have  one 
line  of  piles  driven  along  this  line,  two  lines  of  piles  out- 
side of  it,  and  three  or  four  lines  inside  of  it.  This  wili 
give  six  or  seven  lines  of  piles  for  supporting  launching 
ways  and  a  sufficiently  wide  support  to  take  care  of 
ordinary  variations  of  width  of  launching  ways. 


Another  View  of  the  Shattuck-Bullt  Ships  and  the  Long  Line  of  Building 
Ways  at  Fortsmonth,  N.  H. 

Fig.  3  going  down  the  ways. 

The  width  necessary  to  erect  staging  around  vessel 
should  be  added  to  extreme  width  of  vessel,  and  the  width 
required  for  handling  material  should  be  measured  from 
outside  of  staging  supports. 

Always  leave  ample  room  between  adjacent  slips  for 
the  operation  of  hoist  and  handling  the  largest  pieces  of 
material. 

9e.     Inclination  of  Keel  Blocking 

Keel  blocking  is  the  name  given  to  the  blocks  upon 
which  a  vessel's  keel  is  laid  and  weight  of  vessel  carried 
until  it  is  transferred  to  the  launching  ways  immediately 
before  launching.  The  height  of  keel  blocks  must  be 
such  that  bottom  of  vessel's  keel  and  frame  will  be  suffi- 
ciently high  above  the  ground  of  slip,  or  slip  floor,  for 
the  workmen  to  do  the  necessary  construction  work,  and 
the  inclination  relative  to  slip  and  launching  ways  must 
be  such  that  the  forefoot  of  vessel  will  clear  the  lower 
end  of  slip  by  at  least  10  inches  when  vessel  is  being 
launched.  Bear  in  mind  that  the  inclination  of  top  of 
keel  blocks  determines  the  inclination  keel  will  have  dur- 
ing launching,  and  that  the  keel  of  vessel  does  not  have  to 
be  at  the  same  inclination  as  launching  ways  or  building 
slip  floor. 

To  determine  the  required  height  and  inclination  of 
keel  blocks  proceed  in  this  manner: 

Lay  out  on  a  piece  of  drawing  paper,  to  proper  scale, 
lines  to  indicate  correct  length  and  inclination  of  slip 
floor  and  inclination  that  you  intend  the  launching  ways 
to  have.  Next  mark  points  on  these  lines  where  fore- 
foot, midship  section  and  stern-post  of  vessel  will  be 
located  during  construction.  Tlie  height  that  keel  of 
vessel  must  be  above  ground  to  insure  ample  working 
space  under  vessel  for  the  men  who  will  do  the  construc- 
tion work  must  next  be  determined,  and  it  is  best  to 
determine  this  height  for  the  midship  section  position 
because  that  will  be  flattest  and  widest  point  of  bottom 
of  vessel. 

Having  determined  the  height  keel  must  be  above 
slip  floor  at  midship  section,  measure  oflf  this  height  on 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


71 


drawing,  and  also  measure  off  at  lower  end  of  slip  a 
distance  of  at  least  10  inches  above  the  floor  of  slip  line. 
A  line  drawn  through  these  two  points  will  indicate 
the  correct  inclination  for  keel  blocking  measured  in  a 
straight  line,  and  if  the  bottom  of  keel  does  not  extend 


Fig.  59. 


Canibas.   10,000-Ton  Freighter  Launched  From  the  Texas  S.  S. 
Company's  Yard  at  Bath,   Me. 


below  this  line  you  can  be  sure  that  there  will  be  ample 
clearance  above  slip  during  launching. 

To  insure  that  you  understand  this  explanation  I  have 
drawn  Fig.  60. 

On  this  illustration  I  show  a  longitudinal  outline  of 
vessel.  The  line  B.L.  is  drawn  horizontal  and  only  for 
the  purpose  of  insuring  that  inclined  lines  are  marked  at 
correct  inclinations  to  the  horizontal. 

The  line  S.S.  indicates  top  of  slip  floor  and  is  drawn 
at  correct  slip  inclination. 

The  line  W.W.  indicates  inclination  of  launching  ways 
and  is  drawn  at  their  proper  inclination  and  height  rela- 
tive to  line  S.S. 

The  line  S.K.F.  indicates  selected  height  and  inclina- 
tion of  keel  blocks,  S  being  the  location  of  stern,  K  the 
midship  section  position,  and  F  the  position  of  forefoot 
of  vessel  during  construction.  The  line  S.K.F.  is  con- 
tinued past  end  of  launching  ways  and  if  it  nowhere  falls 
below  the  line  W.W.  and  the  line  W.W.  is  nowhere 
nearer  to  S.S.  than  10  inches,  the  forefoot  of  vessel  will 
clear  end  of  building  slip  when  vessel  is  launched.     By 


measuring  from  S.S.  to  S.K.F.  at  proper  intervals  height 
of  keel  blocks  to  a  straight  line  can  be  ascertained. 

9f.     Keel  Blocking 

During  construction  the  entire  weight  of  a  vessel  is 
carried  on  a  row  of  temporary  building  blocks  placed 
immediately  under  keel  at  the  proper  inclination.  These 
keel  supporting  blocks  are  generally  placed  about  4  feet 
apart,  and  each  block  is  built  of  pieces  of  timber  placed 
one  on  top  of  another  until  the  desired  height  is  obtained. 
When  the  vessel  is  not  exceedingly  heavy,  or  the  keel 
blocks  not  excessively  high  each  keel  block  can  consist 
of  pieces  of  timber  placed  on  top  of  each  other,  the 
lowest  one  being  placed  immediately  on  a  cross  cap  of 
slip  foundation;  but  when  the  vessel  is  heavy  or  keel 
blocks  have  to  be  erected  to  a  height  that  would  make 


Sli^  fLoaa. 


g 


v^^\m 


m 


s^ 


'-'/y^m^J-'  -~) 


rig.  61 

it  difficult  to  keep  single  blocking  in  position,  cribbing  is 
resorted  to  and  each  keel  block  is  placed  on  the  center 
of  a  crib  of  timber  resting  on  at  least  two  of  the  cross 
timbers  of  the  slip  foundation  and  built  up  of  pieces  of 
timber  laid  alternately  lengthways  and  athwartships. 
The  whole  structure  of  each  keel  block  must  be  securely 
fastened  together,  and  as  all  of  the  keel-supporting  block- 
ing must  be  removed  before  vessel  can  be  launched,  the 
blocks  or  cribbing  must  be  erected  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  can  be  removed  from  below  the  keel  after  the  entire 
construction  work  is  completed. 

Fig.  61  shows  illustration  of  keel  blocking  set  up  on  a 
building  slip,  a  portion  of  the  blocking  being  cribbed. 

9g.     Launching  Apparatus 

The  launching  apparatus  may  be  divided  into  two 
principal  parts — the  launching  ways  and  the  cradle  or 


Fig.   60 


72 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Keel  Blocks  Being  Laid 

temporary  framework  which  slides  down  the  launching 
ways  and  supports  vessel  during  its  movement  down  the 
ways.  The  launching  ways  consist  of  two  continuous 
runways  of  hard  wood  (oak,  maple  or  hard  pine),  planed 
perfectly  smooth  and  laid  at  such  an  inclination  that 
vessel  will  move  freely  down  the  ways  as  soon  as  she 
is  free  to  do  so.  If  the  inclination  of  lavmching  ways 
is  greater  than  inclination  of  building  slip  floor,  the 
ways  must  be  securely  supported  on  blocking  or  cribbing 
placed  on  top  of  slip  foundation  timbers.  Of  course  the 
launching  ways  must  be  securely  fastened  and  shored 
to  prevent  them  moving  sideways  or  lengthways  during 
launching. 

The  determining  factors  for  inclination  are: 
1st. — The  weight  of  vessel.     The  smaller  the  weight 
the  greater  the  inclination  should  be. 

2d. — The  speed  in  feet  per  second  that  vessel  is 
wanted  to  move  at  during  launching.  The  available  width 
of  channel  and  depth  of  water  where  vessel  will  take 
the  water  must  be  carefully  considered  and  a  launching 
speed  selected  that  will  be  sufficiently  great  to  insure  that 


vessel  will  take  water  properly  and  not  so  great  as  to 
cause  vessel  to  travel  too  great  a  distance  after  she  is 
water-borne. 

In  practice  it  has  been  found  that  one-half  inch  to 
a  foot  is  a  dangerously  slow  inclination  for  even  the 
largest  vessels. 

Five-eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  will  give  a  moderate 
and  easily  controlled  safe  launching  speed  for  vessels 
weighing  between  800  and  1,200  tons. 

An  inclination  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  a  foot 
will  give  a  good,  safe,  free  launching  speed  for  moderate 
weight  vessel,  or  a  speed  that  will  be  sufficient  to  insure 
freedom  from  danger  of  sticking,  and  if  there  is  suffi- 
cient width  of  channel  to  allow  this  inclination  it  is  an 
excellent  one  to  select. 

Seven-eighths  of  an  inch  to  a  foot  will  deliver  a  vessel 
into  the  water  at  a  high  rate  of  travel  and  should  not  be 
used  except  in  cases  when  it  is  necessary  that  vessel  move 
very  fast,  or  there  is  danger  of  the  weight  of  vessel 
forcing  the  lubricating  grease  out  from  between  the 
launching  and  sliding  ways. 

The  following  particulars  of  launching  speeds  will 
prove  of  value  as  a  guide: 


Table  of  Launching  Data 


Length 

of  Vessel 

in  Feet 


Launching 
Weight 
in  Tons 


Inclinittion 

of  Launching 

Ways  per  Foot 

Inches 


Launching 
Speed  Feet 
per  Second 


.5/8  . 
.3/4  . 
.9/16. 
.5/8    . 

.5/8  . 
.9/16. 
.9/16. 


.12* 

•  15 

•  IS 
.16 

•  17 
.16 
.18 


200 250 

225 350 

250 560 

275 675 

310 875 

32s 1,200 

350 1,800 

*Too  slow. 

A  velocity  of  12  feet  per  second  is  very  slow;  one 
of  about  15  feet  per  second  is  a  good  speed  to  use  in 
cases  where  it  is  desired  to  control  the  launching  or  stop 
vessel  gently;  16  to  18  feet  per  second  is  an  excellent 
speed  for  use  when  width  of  launching  channel  is  suffi- 
cient to  allow  vessel  to  move  a  little  distance  out  before 
being  stopped. 


Fig.  62 


Schooner  O.  A.  SomervlUe,  Designed  by  Cox  &  Stevens, 
Beady   For    Launching 


Schooner  G.  A.  Somervllle  Afloat 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


73 


Above  1 8  feet  per  second  should  not  be  used  unless 
there  is  ample  room  for  launching  or  it  is  necessary  to 
have  vessel  move  very  swiftly  down  the  ways. 

9h.     Breadth  of  Surface  of  Launching  Ways 

The  width  of  surface  of  launching  ways  must  always 
be  proportioned  to  weight  of  vessel  because  the  whole 
of  launching  weight  of  vessel  must  be  carried  on  launch- 
ing ways,  and  if  weight  per  unit  of  surface  is  too  great 
the  lubricating  materials  placed  between  launching  and 
sliding  ways  will  be  forced  out  and  vessel  may  stick  on 
ways. 

The  width  of  launching  ways  should  be  such  that 
maximum  pressure  on  each  square  foot  of  surface  that 
is  beneath  the  sliding  ways  does  not  exceed  2^  tons. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  launching  weight  of  a 
certain  vessel  is  8oo  tons,  the  length  of  launching  cradle 
surface  that  will  bear  on  ways  is  200  feet,  and  we  desire 
that  pressure  per  square  foot  during  launching  does  not 
exceed  2  tons. 

As  there  are  two  launching  ways  the  weight  each 
must  support  is  400  tons,  and  as  length  of  each  sliding 
way  is  200  feet  a  surface  of  2  feet  is  sufficient  to  carry 
the  weight  without  exceeding  the  named  pressure  per 
square  foot. 


gi.  Distance  to  Placf.  Launching  Ways  Apart 
A  distance  of  about  one-third  the  extreme  breadth  of 
vessel  from  center  to  center  of  ways,  measured  at  their 
upper  end,  will  give  excellent  results  for  vessels  of  ordi- 
nary form  of  cross  section.  The  lower  end  of  ways 
must  be  2  or  3  inches  further  apart  than  the  upper  ends, 
this  increase  of  distance  being  nece^ary  to  take  care  of 
the  slight  spreading  of  cradle  that  occurs  when  weight 
of  vessel  is  transferred  from  keel  blocks  to  cradle,  and 
to  insure  that  the  cradle  will  move  freely  down  the 
ways. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  launch- 
ing ways  should  be  inclined  inwards  about  yi  inch  to  a 
foot  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  danger  of  ways 
being  forced  outwards  when  weight  is  transferred  to 
them. 

When  a  vessel  moves  along  the  launching  ways  there 
is  always  a  tendency  to  slide  sideways,  as  well  as  towards 
the  water,  the  side  tendency  being  due  to  the  outward 
pressure  on  bilge  ways  which  is  always  present,  though 
not  dangerous  unless  it  should  happen  that  one  of  the 
launching  ways  is  placed  slightly  higher  than  the  other 
or  the  bilge  blocking  of  cradle  is  not  wedged  up  alike 
on  both  sides.  Perfection  in  these  matters  cannot  be 
obtained,  so,  by  giving  the  ways  a  slight  inclination  of 
surface  inward,  and  spreading  them  a  little  at  the  lower 


rig.  63.     Launching  of  i  Motoxshlp  at  the  St.  Helens  Yards,  Near  Port  ind,  Ore.     Another  One  Hundred  and  Fifty  of  These  3,000-Ton  Vessels 

Have  Been  Ordered.     They  Are  Fitted  With  Heavy-Oil  Engines 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


q      10     II 

a    lb         ^        "     - 
ends,   danger    from  these   two   causes   is   reduced   to  a 
minimum. 

I  will  now  illustrate  and  explain  the  launching  appara- 
tus used  when  launching  a  moderately  sized  vessel  stern 
first. 


Fig.  64 


Fig.  64  shows  a  cross  section  of  launching  apparatus 
placed  in  position  under  vessel.  I  have  selected  a  section 
through  one  of  the  forward  sections  and  show  the  vessel 
resting  on  cradle. 

Fig.  65  shows  longitudinal  view  of  same  vessel  and 
one  side  of  cradle  in  position  ready  to  wedge  up. 

9J.     Descriptive  Explanation  of  Figs.  64  and  65 

No.  I  indicates  top  of  slip  floor  (already  described). 

No.  2  indicates  supporting  piles  (already  described). 

No.  3  indicates  athwartships  caps  placed  on  piles 
(already  described). 

No.  4,  keel  blocking  upon  which  vessel  rests  during 
construction  (already  described). 

No.  5.  Launching  Ways  placed  in  position  for 
launching. 

No.  6.  Launching  Ribbands  that  run  full  length  of 
launching  ways  to  prevent  the  sliding,  or  bilge,  ways 
from  sliding  sideways.  These  ribbands  are  strips  of  oak 
or  hard  wood  bolted  to  launching  ways.  The  butts  of 
ribbands  should  not  coincide  with  butts  of  launching 
ways. 


Fig.  65 


No.  7.  Ribband  Shores  placed  at  frequent  intervals 
along  outside  of  launching  ways.  Their  use  is  to  hold 
launching  ways  in  place  and  prevent  the  ribbands  being 
torn  off.  Note  that  one  end  of  shores  rests  partly 
against  ribband  and  partly  against  launching  w^y,  and 
the  other  is  firmly  braced  against  side  of  slip  or  piles 
driven  into  ground  for  that  purpose. 

The  abovenamed  pieces  form  the  lower  line  of  sup- 
ports and  are  the  fixed  portion  of  the  launching  apparatus. 

The  upper,  or  movable,  portion  of  the  launching 
apparatus  forms  a  cradle  for  the  vessel  to  rest  in  and  a 
carriage  that  will  glide  smoothly  along  the  launching 
ways  and  convey  vessel  from  the  slip  to  the  water. 

No.  8.  Sliding,  or  Bilge,  Ways.  These  are  oak,  or 
yellow  pine  logs  that  rest  on  launching  ways.  Two  or 
more  logs  are  required  on  each  launching  way,  and  the 
surface  that  rests  on  launching  ways  must  be  planed 
perfectly  smooth,  and  ends  of  each  log  slightly  rounded 
to  prevent  their  catching  in  launching  ways  should  there 
be  a  slight  irregularity  at  any  joint.  The  pieces  of  slid- 
ing ways  butt  against  each  other  and  are  usually  fastened 
together  with  rope,  or  chain  lashings  passed  through 
holes  bored  in  ends  of  each  piece.  The  sliding  ways 
form  a  base  for  the  cradle  upon  which  the  whole  weight 
of  vessel  is  carried  while  being  launched.  The  length 
and  width  of  sliding  ways  must  be  such  that  pressure 
on  their  under  surface  does  not  exceed  2^^  tons  per 
square  foot.  The  sliding  ways  must  be  slightly  longer 
than  cradle  and  should  not  be  less  than  three-quarters  of 
the  length  of  vessel.  The  lubricating  material  is  placed 
between  launching  and  bilge  ways.  Note  that  when  ves- 
sel rests  on  cradle  the  outer  edge  of  bilge  ways  does  not 
bear  hard  against  the  launching  ribbands.  There  is  about 
^  inch  between. 

No.  9.  Sole  Piece.  Planks  of  hard  wood  that  ex- 
tend from  end  to  end  of  cradle  to  form  a  bearing  sur- 
face for  the  large  wedges  that  are  used  to  raise  vessel 
off  keel  blocks  immediately  before  launching.  The  sole 
piece  planks  are  fitted  so  that  when  their  inner  edge 
rests  firmly  upon  the  sliding  ways  the  outer  edge  is 
about  ^  inch  open.  This  opening  is  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  a  good  bearing  surface  for  the  wedges.  The  sole 
piece  planks  are  made  the  width  sliding  ways. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


75 


Fig.  66. 


Coyote,  Wooden  Ship  Built  by  tlie  Foundation  Company.     She  Is  281  Ft.  Long  and  Is  the  First  of  a  Big  Fleet  Building  at  This 

Company's  Plant  on  the  Passaic  Biver 


No.  lo.  Slices,  or  Large  Wedges,  placed  between 
sliding  ways  and  sole  piece  planks. 

No.  II.  Packing  or  Filling,  that  fills  space  from  top 
of  sole  piece  plank  to  bilge  along  the  middle  length  of 
vessel.  The  quantity  and  length  of  this  filling  depends 
upon  shape  of  vessel.  This  filling  is  the  width  of  sole 
plank. 

No.  12.  Poppets  are  upright  pieces  of  timber  placed 
abaft  and  before  the  packing.  The  packing  extends  for- 
ward and  aft  to  points  where  the  distance  between  bilge 
and  sole  plank  becomes  too  great  for  the  use  of  solid 
packing.  From  these  points  bilge  of  vessel  is  supported 
by  means  of  logs  of  timber,  called  poppets,  which  are 
placed  about  15  inches  apart  and  stand  upright  or  at  a 
slight  rake.  The  lower  ends  of  poppets  rest  upon  the 
sole  planks  and  their  upper  ends  against  planks  that  are 
fitted  snugly  against  the  vessel's  planking,  and  both  ends 
of  poppets  are  securely  fastened  to  these  planks  and  held 
in  position  by  cleats,  bolts  and  tenons.  You  will  note 
that  the  extreme  forward  and  after  poppets  stand  at  a 
rake.     This  helps  to  resist  the  upsetting  tendency. 

No.  13.  Poppet  Ribbands.  The  poppets  are  held  to- 
gether, fastened  to  the  packing,  and  braced  longitudinally 
by  pieces  of  planks  called  poppet  ribbands.  One  is  gen- 
erally placed  near  bottom  and  one  near  top  of  poppets, 
though  when  poppets  are  short  a  single  wide  ribband  is 
sufficient.  The  ribbands  extend  well  onto  the  planking, 
are  let  into  both  filling  and  poppets  and  securely  fastened 


with  bolts,  thus  tying  filling  and  poppets  together  and 
making  one  firm  structure,  longitudinally,  of  each  side  of 
cradle. 

No.  14.  Poppet  Chains,  or  Lashings.  To  prevent 
the  upper  ends  of  poppets  working  outwards  when 
weight  of  vessel  is  transferred  to  cradle,  chains  are  passed 
under  the  keel  of  vessel,  one  end  of  each  chain  being 
fastened  to  a  poppet  on  one  side  of  vessel  and  the  other 
end  fastened  to  corresponding  poppet  on  the  other  side. 
The  number  and  size  of  chains  to  use  depends  upon  size 
and  shape  of  vessel's  underbody.  The  greater  the  dead- 
rise  the  greater  the  tendency  will  be  for  the  hull  to  wedge 
cradle  outwards  and  therefore  the  greater  the  number  of 
chains  required  to  keep  cradle  in  place.  For  a  vessel 
of  moderate  size  with  normal  deadrise  there  should  be 
at  least  two  chains  secured  to  forward  poppets,  two  to 
ends  of  packing  and  two  to  the  after  poppets.  Of  course 
the  chains  must  be  brought  up  taut  against  under  side  of 
keel  before  they  are  fastened,  and  it  is  always  advisable 
to  place  a  piece  of  hardwood  packing  between  chain  and 
keel  to  prevent  chain  cutting  into  keel  when  strain  is 
put  on  chains  during  launching.  Very  often  it  is  advis- 
able to  make  one  end  of  each  chain  fast  with  a  removable 
pin  extending  above  water,  thus  insuring  that  the  chains 
can  be  quickly  loosened  and  cradle  separated  should  it  be 
found  difficult  to  remove  cradle  from  under  vessel  after 
she  is  afloat. 

No.  15.    Dog  Shore.  This  is  a  shore  that  prevents  the 


76 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  67.     Chetopa  Flnnging  Into  the  Water,  and  Alcona  Waiting  For  Her  Turn 


sliding  ways  and  cradle  moving  between  the  time  vessel 
is  raised  off  keel  blocking  and  time  of  launching.  This 
shore  is  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  ways,  its  lower  end 
resting  against  the  launching  ribband  (6)  and  its  upper 
end  against  a  cleat  securely  fastened  to  the  side  of  sliding 
ways.  The  under  side  of  the  cleat  that  is  fastened  to 
bilge  ways  must  be  kept  well  above  the  top  of  launching 
ribband,  because  it  must  pass  over  and  clear  of  ribband 
during  launching. 

No.  i6.  Sole  Piece  Stops.  These  are  pieces  of  hard 
wood  bolted  to  sliding  ways  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing side  and  end  movement  of  sole  piece  planks.  The 
top  of  these  stops  must  be  a  sufficient  distance  below  top 
of  sole  piece  plank  to  enable  wedges  to  be  driven. 

No.  17.  Holes  bored  in  ends  of  sliding  ways  to  re- 
ceive ropes  which  are  led  on  board  to  secure  bilge  ways 
when  they  float  after  vessel  is  launched. 

I  will  now  briefly  describe  the  preparations  for  launch- 
ing a  vessel. 

The  launching  ways  are  first  set  in  position  and 
secured,  then  ribbands  and  ribband  shores  are  placed 
and  fastened.  When  placing  launching  ways  it  is  well  to 
bear  in  mind  that  if  their  upper  surface  is  given  a  camber 
of  about  2  inches  per  100  feet  of  length  the  danger  of 
vessel  sticking,  should  ways  settle,  will  be  greatly 
lessened. 

Next  the  sliding  ways,  sole  pieces,  sole  piece  stops, 
packing,  poppets  and  poppet  ribbands  are  fitted  in  place, 
and  poppet  chains,  lashings,  wedges,  and  dog  shores  got 
ready.  Everything  is  fitted  and  fastened  properly,  and 
ropes  or  chains  for  removing  cradle  from  under  vessel 


after  she  is  afloat  are  led  and  arranged.  For  this  purpose 
wire  ropes  or  chain,  of  sufficient  length  to  extend  from 
upper  end  of  building  slip  to  the  point  in  water  where 
vessel  will  be  fully  water-borne,  are  fastened  to  upper 
ends  of  bilge  ways,  the  other  ends  of  ropes  being  fastened 
to  an  anchor  or  piles  set  into  ground  at  upper  end  of  slip. 

These  ropes  or  chains  are  led  inside  of  the  sliding 
ways  and  stopped  up  out  of  the  way  with  rope  yam. 
As  the  ropes  are  only  sufficiently  long  to  allow  cradle  to 
move  freely  until  vessel  is  water-borne,  they  will  stop 
the  cradle  when  that  point  is  reached,  and  as  the  vessel 
can  still  continue  to  move  she  will  leave  the  cradle  and 
thus  allow  it  to  float  clear. 

When  everything  is  fitted  and  fastened  properly,  the 
cradle  is  removed  from  under  vessel  and  sliding  ways 
are  turned  bottom  side  up  and  clear  of  launching  ways. 
The  surfaces  of  launching  ways  and  sliding  ways  are 
next  thoroughly  covered  with  tallow  and  soft  soap;  the 
tallow  being  to  fill  the  pores  of  wood  and  give  it  a 
smooth  surface,  and  the  soft  soap  to  lubricate  the  sur- 
face. Oil  is  added  to  the  soap  to  insure  more  perfect 
lubrication.  Several  coats  of  hot  tallow  are  applied, 
time  being  given  to  allow  each  coat  to  soak  well  into 
the  wood. 

The  sliding  ways  are  next  placed  back  in  position  and 
the  exposed  surfaces  of  launching  ways  covered  with 
boards  to  protect  the  tallow  and  soap  from  dirt  until 
time  of  launching  arrives. 

The  dog  shores  are  next  placed  and  secured  and 
additional  temporary  stops  placed  against  lower  ends  of 
ways. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


77 


Fig.   68.     Lake   Silver,  at  the  Great  Lakes  Engineering   Works   at  Ecorse,  on  the  Ways  Ready  For  Her  Sideways  Plunge 


Next  the  pieces  of  cradle  are  put  back  into  position 
and  refastened,  and  ends  of  wedges  entered  between  sole 
plank  and  sliding  ways  and  driven  up  until  the  cradle 
rests  firmly  against  hull. 

The  poppet  chains  and  lashings  are  now  placed  and 
everything  prepared  for  transferring  the  weight  of  vessel 
from  keel  blocking  to  cradle. 

The  weight  of  vessel  still  rests  upon  the  keel  blocks 
and  should  rest  there  until  immediately  before  the  time 
set  for  launching,  when  gangs  of  men  are  arranged 
along  each  side  of  vessel,  and  at  a  given  signal  the  wedges 
are  driven  home  evenly  and  weight  of  vessel  gently 
transferred  from  keel  blocks  to  cradle.  Every  other 
keel  block  and  bilge  shore  is  first  removed  and  blocking 
moved  clear  of  keel,  and  when  this  has  been  done  the 
wedges  are  again  driven  and  the  remainder  of  keel  blocks 
and  shores  are  taken  down. 

The  whole  weight  of  vessel  now  rests  on  sliding  ways 
and  the  vessel  should  be  released  as  soon  as  possible, 
because  if  launching  is  delayed  there  is  danger  of  the 
pressure  due  to  vessel's  weight  forcing  the  tallow  and 
soap  out  from  between  the  ways  and  thus  reducing  its 
lubricating  value.  ' 

The  temporary  stops  are  removed  immediately  after 
the  men  are  clear  of  the  bottom  of  vessel,  and  then,  by 
simply  cutting  or  releasing  the  dog  shore,  vessel  will  be 
free  to  move  by  its  own  gravity  toward  the  water. 

In  all  cases  it  is  well  to  make  provision  for  starting 
vessel,  should  she  refuse  to  start  immediately  the  dog 
shore  is  released.  For  this  purpose  air  or  hydraulic 
rams,  jack  screws,  or  balks  of  timber  handled  by  gangs 


of  men  can  be  used.  The  most  important  thing  to  re- 
member is,  never  to  delay  a  moment  if  vessel  refuses  to 
start,  and  to  make  sure  that  the  rams,  screws,  or  balks 
of  timber  are  applied  simultaneously  and  with  equal  force 
to  each  side  of  vessel. 

Of  course  proper  provisions  must  be  made  for  stop- 
ping vessel  when  she  is  afloat.  This  is  usually  done  by 
means  of  drags,  weights  or  anchors  operated  from  on 
board  the  vessel. 

9k.    Concluding  Remarks 

In  all  cases  it  is  necessary  to  insure  that  damage  will 
not  result  to  hull  from  excessive  strains  that  occur  dur- 
ing launching.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  place 
shoring  inside  of  hull  near  the  places  where  excessive 
strains  are  likely  to  arise. 

As  vessel  enters  the  water,  the  water  that  surrounds 
it  exerts  a  supporting  force  that  will  lift  stern  clear  of 
ways  just  as  soon  as  the  total  buoyancy  becomes  greater 
than  the  total  weight.  If  the  length  of  ways  is  sufficient 
to  support  the  whole  length  of  cradle  until  buoyancy  of 
water  acting  on  immersed  portion  of  hull  is  sufficient  to 
lift  vessel  clear  of  cradle  there  will  be  no  tipping  moment, 
but  the  force  of  buoyancy  will  cause  a  great  pressure  on 
the  fore  poppets  and  portions  of  hull  and  ways  that  is 
nearest  to  them,  and  if  the  structure  of  poppets,  hull 
and  ways  is  not  sufficiently  strengthened  at  this  point 
one  of  three  things  may  happen :  '  / 

Either  the  ways  may  spread  out ; 

Or  the  fore  poppets  may  collapse ;    • 

Or  the  hull  may  be  fqcced  in  and  se^a 


Accoma,  Wooden  Ship  Bnilt  by  tbe  Foundation  Company,  Sliding  Down  the  Ways  Into  the  Passaic  River 


Pig.  70.     A  Broadside  Launching  at  the  Ecorse  Yard,  Great  Lakes 


WOODEN     SHIP -BUILDING 


79 


Fig.  69.     Launch  of  tlie  Mezoil,  a  S.OOOTon  Vessel,  Built  by  the  Alabama-New  Orleans  Transportation  Company  at  Violet,  La.,  For  the  Mexican 

Petroleum   Company 


If,  however,  the  ways  are  so  short  that  the  longitu- 
dinal C.G.  of  hull  and  cradle  weight  will  pass  beyond 
their  ends  before  buoyancy  is  sufficient  to  cause  a  lifting 
moment  in  opposite  direction,  there  will  be  a  tipping  mo- 
ment, and  it  is  clear  that  the  ends  of  launching  ways  will 
become  a  fulcrum,  and  if  they  are  not  sufficiently  strong 
to  support  the  strain  and  weight  caused  by  tipping,  the 
ways  may  give  way  or  they  may  spread  out.  If  the  ways 
are  able  to  stand  the  strain  and  the  inclination  of  ways 
and  depth  of  water  is  sufficient  to  allow  vessel  to  sink 
deep  into  water  before  lifting,  the  bow  of  vessel  may 
lift  clear  of  cradle  and  immediately  afterward  the  up 
force  of  buoyancy  may  be  sufficiently  strong  to  bring 
the  bow  down  onto  the  launching  ways  with  considerable 
force.  So  in  this  case  also  it  is  necessary  to  insure 
against  damage  to  hull  by  placing  internal  shores  and 


braces  along  the  portion  of  hull  that  is  near  to   fore 
poppets. 

9I.    Bro.adside  Launching 

In  many  yards  on  the  Great  Lakes  vessels  are  con- 
structed with  their  keels  parallel  with  water  front  and 
therefore  it  is  necessary  to  launch  sideways  in  place  of 
endways  as  is  usual  along  the  coast.  When  a  vessel  has 
to  be  launched  sideways  or  "broadside"  ways  are  evenly 
distributed  under  the  whole  length  of  vessel  and  launch- 
ing cradle  rests  on  these  ways  at  right  angles  to  their 
line  of  direction. 

On  Fig.  68  launching  ways  and  cradle  is  clearly 
shown  and  on  Fig.  70  Lake  Janet  is  shown  just  entering 
the  water. 


Chapter   X 

Building  a  Ship 


Having  described  each  principal  part  of  a  vessel's 
construction,  I  will  in  this  chapter  describe  the  proper 
way  to  build  a  vessel  in  a  modern  shipyard.  By  building 
a  vessel  I  mean  management  and  supervision  as  well  as 
the  actual  construction  and  equipment  work. 

loa.     Explanatory 

To  become  successful  as  a  builder  of  wooden  vessels 
one  must  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  ship  construction, 
of  what  constitutes  a  fair  day's  labor  and  of  material; 
and  in  addition  to  this,  the  ability  to  plan  work  ahead  of 
requirements,  and  to  manage  and  supervise  men  is  of 
prime  importance.  It  is  not  necessary  that  all  of  this 
knowledge  and  ability  be  possessed  by  one  man  but  it  is 
very  necessary  that  the  one  or  more  men  who  direct 
work  and  manage  the  yard  be  fully  competent  in  the 
things  I  have  mentioned.  It  is  an  error  to  imagine  that 
success  in  building  a  vessel  largely  depends  upon  the 
mechanic's  ability  to  do  work  properly.  Unless  properly 
managed  and  someone  with  brains  directs  them,  the  most 
competent  workmen  are  more  likely  to  make  a  failure 
than  less  competent  men  managed  and  directed  in  a 
proper  manner. 

So  I  will  commence  at  the  beginning  and  explain  some 
of  the  fundamental  essentials  for  success  in  ship-building. 
Ship-building  is  a  business  that  calls  for  coordination  of 
the  work  of  men  in  many  trades  and  the  use  of  many 
different  kinds  of  material.  In  addition  to  this,  the  build- 
ing of  a  ship  covers  a  period  of  several  months  at  least, 
and  any  failure,  during  this  whole  period,  to  have  material 
on  hand  when  required,  to  supervise  and  plan  properly, 
or  to  have  the  proper  number  of  men  at  work  and  work 
done  in  proper  order,  is  very  likely  to  cause  delays  and 
increase  cost. 


For  the  purpose  of  this  explanation  I  will  suppose  that 
a  certain  vessel  owner  desires  to  have  a  wooden  vessel 
built.  The  owner  can  do  one  of  two  things.  He  can 
either  go  to  a  naval  architect,  explain  his  ideas  and  have 
a  set  of  plans  and  specifications  prepared  and  then  get 
builders  to  submit  prices  for  building  the  vessel  in  accord- 
ance with  the  architect's  plans  and  specifications,  and 
under  his  supervision,  or  he  can  go  to  a  builder,  or  to 
several  builders,  and  get  him,  or  them,  to  submit  prices 
for  building  the  vessel  from  their  own  plans  and  specifi- 
cations and  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector  ap- 
pointed by  the  owner. 

It  is  a  point  of  controversy  as  to  which  is  the  better 
method,  but  this  much  has  been  definitely  settled — if  is 
much  less  costly  and  more  satisfactory  if  the  vessel's  plans 
and  specifications  are  properly  prepared  and  approved 
before  construction  li'ork  is  commenced.  Therefore,  even 
if  the  owner  adopts  the  second  method  he  should  insist 
upon  plans  being  prepared  and  specifications  being  prop- 
erly drawn  up  before  work  is  commenced. 

Plans  are  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  to  workmen 
the  owner's  intentions  as  to  shape,  construction  and  finish, 
and  by  preparing  all  of  the  plans  beforehand,  it  is  possible 
to  convey  to  the  builder,  his  superintendents,  his  fore- 
men, and  workmen,  a  clear  picture  of  the  whole  building 
problem,  and  thus  they  learn,  before  work  is  commenced, 
what  has  to  be  done  and  the  way  it  is  intended  it  shall 
be  done. 

In  a  book  of  this  kind  it  will  be  out  of  place  to  enter 
into  a  long  explanation  of  the  preparation  of  plans,  but 
as  it  is  necessary  that  you  understand  what  is  meant  by 
Plans  and  Specifications,  I  will  briefly  describe  the  plans 
and  specifications  prepared  by  naval  architects. 


^•nininls  Sblpballdlng  Company's  Plant  at  Portland,  Ore. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


8i 


lob.     Plans  and  Specifications  Briefly  Described 
A  set  of  Plans  and  Specifications  prepared  by  a  naval 
architect  generally  consist  of: 

(a)  Lines  drawing,  or  drawing  to  show  the  shape  of 
vessel.  This  drawing  shows  profile,  cross-section  and 
half-breadth  water-line,  views  of  vessel's  shape,  and  has 
attached  to  it  a  table  of  measurements,  called  Offset  table, 
from  which  the  mould  loftsman  can  obtain  measurements 
for  "laying  down"  the  lines  full  size. 

(b)  Construction  drawings,  or  drawings  that  show 
the  designer's  intentions  regarding  the  way  structure  is  to 
be  fitted  and  fastened  together.  There  are  usually  several 
construction  drawings,  each  being  devoted  to  illustrating 
some  particular  part  of  the  structure.  In  general  one 
drawing  shows  the  longitudinal  views  of  framing  of  keel, 
keelsons,  frames,  decks,  etc. ;  another  shows  transverse 
views  of  framing,  another  the  general  arrangement  of 
cabins,  another  longitudinal  and  transverse  views  of  the 
completed  vessel,  another  the  details  of  machinery  and  its 
piping,  another  the  installation  of  sanitary  piping,  etc.; 
another  the  electrical  wiring  and  installation,  and  another 
rigging,  spars  and  details  of  fittings  pertaining  to  them. 
Of  course,  each  drawing  is  to  scale  and  has  marked  on 
it  sufficient  measures  and  written  explanations  to  enable 
the  builder  to  fully  understand  the  designer's  intentions. 
It  is  impossible  to  write  all  necessary  explanations  and 
measurements  on  the  plans,  therefore,  the  designer  always 
attaches  to  them  a  complete,  clearly  written  explanation 
of  every  essential  construction  detail.  This  written  ex- 
planation is  called  the  Specifications. 

On  Fig.  200  illustration  is  shown  the  lines  drawing 
of  a  large  schooner  prepared  by  Crowninshield  and  on 
Fig.  201  is  shown  a  number  of  the  construction  detail 
drawings  of  a  large  motor-driven  vessel  prepared  by  Cox 
&  Stevens. 

An  examination  of  these  drawings  will  serve  to  ex- 
plain, more  clearly  than  can  be  done  in  words,  the  proper 
way  to  prepare  drawings  of  wooden  vessels. 

Now,  I  will  assume  that  the  drawings  have  been  pre- 
pared and  contract  signed  for  the  construction  of  a 
wooden  vessel  of  about  250  feet  in  length. 


The  first  and  really  one  of  the  most  important  things 
the  manager  of  yard  should  consider  is  whether  the  equip- 
ment of  his  plant  is  ample  to  enable  vessel  to  be  built  at 
low  cost  and  in  the  available  time,  and  the  next  is  the 
proper  planning  of  supervision,  of  building  methods,  of 
methods  for  keeping  track  of  costs  and  progress  of  work, 
of  obtaining  materials  and  workmen,  and  of  financing  the 
job  from  the  day  it  is  started  until  the  day  vessel  is  de- 
livered to  owner  and  contract  completed. 

Many  present-day  failures  and  shipyard  difficulties 
can  be  traced  to  some  mistake  in  planning,  or  neglect  to 
give  proper  and  careful  consideration  to  management 
details. 

Assuming  that  the  builder  has  the  ways  ready,  and  a 
certain  amount  of  machinery  and  material  on  hand,  he 
should,  during  the  time  the  contract  is  being  discussed, 
carefully  consider  these  things  and  map  out  some  definite 
plan  of  procedure  to  follow  in  case  the  contract  is  given 
to  him. 

1st. — He  should  determine  whether  the  machinery  in 
his  plant  is  sufficient  to  enable  vessel  to  be  built  economi- 
cally and  as  rapidly  as  necessary. 

2d. — He  should  go  over  available  facilities  for  re- 
ceiving material  and  handling  it  after  it  is  received,  and 
determine  whether  they  are  adecjuate. 

3d. — He  should  carefully  estimate  the  approximate 
quantities  of  material  required,  the  approximate  dates  for 
delivery,  and  it  is  also  advantageous  to  find  out  tenta- 
tively, where  materials  can  be  obtained  and  their  approxi- 
mate prices. 

4th.— He  should  ascertain  whether  methods  of  keep- 
ing track  of  materials,  progress  of  work,  and  costs,  are 
adequate  and  sufficiently  simple  to  enable  every  employee 
to  keep  informed  of  the  things  he  must  know,  and  the 
things  he  is  responsible  for.  Bear  in  mind  that  all  these 
things  should  be  considered  before  it  is  even  certain  that 
contract  will  be  awarded. 

To  the  man  who  is  used  to  doing  work  in  a  haphazard 
manner  or  without  properly  planning  it  beforehand  it 
may  seem  wasteful  of  time  to  plan  every  detail  before 


The  Plant  of  the  Tiarloi  Shlpbnilding  Company  at  Cornwells,  Fa. 


82 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


work  is  commenced,  but  I  can  assure  you  that  the  most 
successful  builders  of  wooden  vessels  are  the  men  who 
carefully  think  out  the  whole  building  problem  before 
beginning  work. 

Before  proceeding  further,  I  will  more  fully  explain 
the  four  items  referred  to  above. 

(ist.)     Machinery  in  Shipyard 

In  these  days,  machinery  is  universally  used  in  all 
modern  shipyards,  and  the  better  and  more  complete  the 
machinery  equipment  is  the  greater  the  speed  of  produc- 
tion and  the  lower  cost  will  be. 

While  machinery  requirements  of  each  yard  will  vary, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  these  machine  tools  are  necessary  in 
a  modern  shipyard  used  for  the  building  of  wooden 
vessels,  and  of  course  there  must  be  ample  power  to  drive 
the  machines  under  the  most  adverse  conditions  of  service. 
When  figuring  upon  power  requirements,  do  not  make  the 
mistake  of  underestimating.  This  is  a  common  fault, 
due  largely  to  the  builders  of  the  machines  forgetting  that 
the  average  shipyard  woodworking  machine  tools  must 
work  on  rough  and  heavy  timbers  and  the  mechanics 
running  the  tools  are  more  likely  to  force  them  to  the 
limit  of  speed  and  power  than  the  mechanic  handling  a 
similar  tool  in  a  joiner  shop. 

Here  is  a  list  of  tools  that  are  considered  essential  in 
a  modern  shipyard.  I  have  listed  them  under  three  head- 
ings :  Shipyard  Proper,  Joiner  Shop,  and  General,  and 
against  each  is  marked  the  approximate  amount  of  power 
required  to  drive  under  normal  service  conditions. 

Shipyard 

48"  Band-saw,  shipyard  type  with  beveling  arrangement.  .  20 

38"  Band  resaw  10 

Automatic  cut-off  saw 15 

Self-feed    circular    rip   saw    25 

Four-sided  timber  planer    45 

Double   surfacer    17 


Beveling  and  edging  raachine^Shipyard  type  25 

Band-saw  38"  ordinary  type  10 

Rip-saw  ordinary  type   10 

Planer  single  surfacer   7 

Joiner  Shop  184 

Band-saw   36"    10 

Small  rip-saw    15 

Universal    bench-saw    5 

Planer   and  matcher   25 

Joiner    10 

Four-sided  moulder  20 

Buzz   planer    5 

Single  planer  or  surfacer   12 

Tenoner,   Mortiser    20 

Sander    10 

Hollow  chisel  mortiser  4 

Chain   mortiser    4 

Wood  lathe,  Saw  sharpener  and  gummer.  Band-saw  setter 

and  filer,  Emery  wheels.  Grindstone  5 

General  145 

Air  compressor,  air  coupling,  air  hose 

Air  compressor,  air  piping,  air  hose  

Six  go-tt)  air  hammers 

Two  extra  heavy  air  hammers 

Six  air-driven  wood  boring  machines   

Six  electrical  drills   

Fifty  Hydraulic  jacks  of  various  sizes  

Power  bolt  cutter  10 

Hand  bolt  cutters    

Bolt  header   10 

Two  or  more  Hoisting  Engines  with  wire  cables,  manila 

ropes,  blocks  and  falls   

One  or  more  Traveling  Hoist  with  tracks  laid  to  slipways 

and  woodworking  machine  shops 

Shaving  exhaust  blower   35  to  50 

Portable    forges    

Power  punch   10 

Additional  tools  that  can  be  advantageously  used : 

Portable  electrically  driven  timber  planer 

Portable  electrically  driven  deck  planer  5 

Air-driven  caulking  tools  for  caulking  decks  


<.-■  >*,^i:x:;s;s^ 


ThrM  Wooden   Cargo   Carriers  on   tba   Way*   at  the   Yards   of  the   St.  Helens  ShipbulldinK  Co.  at  St.  Helens,  Oregon.     The  S.  T.  Allard  Is  in 

the  Center  and  the  City  of  St.  Helens  on  the  Left 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


83 


Fig.  71.     A  Squadron  of  Electric  Carriers  at  the  Yard  of  the  Peninsula 

Shlphulldlng  Company.     These  Handy  Vehicles  Are  Wonders  In 

the  Way  of  Time-Savlng  and  Transportational  Flexibility 

This  list  is  merely  a  general  one  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  information  about  tools  that  should  be  available 
in  a  modern  shipyard.  The  powers  given  are  taken  from 
actual  installations  of  electrically  driven  tools  installed 
in  a  modern  shipyard.  It  should  be  remembered  that, 
while  it  is  only  occasionally  that  more  than  50%  of  the 
tools  will  be  in  operation  at  one  time,  it  is  not  safe  to 
assume  that  the  total  power  required  will  ever  fall  below 
the  actual  total  for  all  tools.  As  a  modern  shipyard  is 
frequently  called  upon  to  do  machine  work  on  metals,  a 
few  metalworking  machine  tools  should  be  installed.  Be- 
low I  give  list  of  power  required  to  drive  modern  metal- 
working  machine  tools : 

56"  X  56"  X  12'  planer  will  require     20 

42"  X  42"  X  20'  planer  will  require     15 

30"  X  30"  X  8'  planer   10 

24"  X  24"  X  6'  planer   5 

10'  boring   mill    20 

7'  boring   mill    I5 

so"  boring  mill    7 

62"  lathe    10 

48"  lathe    5 

32"  lathe    4 

24"  lathe    3 

18"  lathe    2 

5'  radial  drill  5 

Four  spindle  gang  drill  7 

40"  vertical  drill   2 

Milling  machine    3 

•    No.  6  Niles  bending  rolls 35 

Double  punch  and  sheers  10 

Angle  sheers   (  double)    10 

12"  straightening  rolls   15 

No.  4  punch   10 

No.  2  punch  5 

18"  shaper  5 

Milling  machine   3-5 

Grinding  machine   3-6 

22'  bending  rolls  driving  35 

lifting 10 

Regarding  installation  of  machinery.  Electrically 
driven  tools  are  preferable  to  belt  driven,  especially  in 


woodworking  shops,  and  in  all  cases  the  location  of  tools 
should  be  chosen  with  a  view  to  every  tool  being  acces- 
sible and  available  for  use  without  it  being  necessary  to 
stop  one  tool  to  enable  material  to  be  properly  handled 
at  an  adjacent  one.  In  addition  to  this,  every  tool  should 
be  so  located  that  the  largest  timbers  can  be  machined  and 
finished  without  excessive  handling  Being  necessary.  The 
entering  end  for  rough  timber  should  always  be  located 
nearest  to  receiving  end  of  yard  and  exit  end  nearest,  or 
in  the  direction  of  assembling  and  erecting  end  of  yard. 

Labor-saving  devices  for  handling  timbers,  such  as 
portable  rollers,  tables,  and  cranes,  should  be  available 
for  use  at  every  machine  where  heavy  timbers  will  be 
handled. 

(2d.)     Facilities  for  Handling  Material 

If  a  shipbuilder  attempts  to  handle  material  by  hand 
he  is  almost  certain  to  make  a  failure  of  the  job  because 
costs  will  be  so  high  that  it  will  become  impossible  for 
him  to  do  business  at  a  profit.  About  1,250,000  feet  of 
timber  has  to  be  handled  three  or  more  times  during  the 
construction  of  a  275-foot  wooden  vessel.  First,  from 
the  vessel  or  cars,  that  delivers  it  to  yard,  to  the  assorting 
and  piling  locations ;  second,  from  the  timber  piles  to  saw- 
mill ;  third,  in  the  sawmill,  and  then  from  sawmill  to  as- 
sembling and  working  platforms  or  stations,  and  from 
there  to  the  vessel  for  erection  in  position.  You  can 
readily  understand  how  labor  cost  will  mount  and  delays 
occur  when  the  handling  and  routing  of  material  has  not 
been  properly  thought  out  and  planned  beforehand.  Here 
are  a  few  suggestions  that  have  proved  of  value:  First, 
carefully  consider  the  possible  locations  of  receiving  and 
storage  points  and  select  those  which  will  enable  the  ma- 
terials to  be  handled  the  minimum  number  of  times  and 
routed  from  receiving  point  through  sawmill  to  assembling 
point  and  from  there  to  building  slip  in  the  most  direct 
manner. 

The  first  sorting  or  grading  of  lumber  for  parts  it 
can  be  best  utilized  for,  and  for  quality,  should  be  done  at 
the  receiving  point  when  material  is  received.  By  doing 
this  much  confusion  and  unnecessary  handling  of  material, 
after  it  is  piled,  will  be  avoided. 

Second,  carefully  consider  how  the  materials  can  be 
best  handled  over  every  point  of  this  routing  and  the 
means  you  will  adopt  for  handling  it.  For  handling  tim- 
bers from  a  vessel's  hold,  or  from  a  car,  by  lifting  power- 
operated  derrick  booms  are  useful,  or  if  the  timbers  have 
to  be  unloaded  from  a  vessel  through  bow  cargo  ports, 
it  may  be  that  a  large  portion  of  the  cargo  can  be  most 
economically  handled  by  means  of  a  power-operated  port- 
able winch  and  wire  rope  passed  through  ports,  the  tim- 
bers being  hauled  endways  from  vessel  and  onto  timber 
trucks  that  will  haul  it  to  storage  piles  or  sawmill.  In 
either  case  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  conveyors  used  for 
moving  timbers  from  vessel  or  car  to  its  first  stopping 
place  be  power-driven.  Electrically  driven  timber  trucks 
running  on  light  steel  rails  or  a  traveling  steam-driven 


84 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


hoist  can  be  used  advantageously,  so  also  can  auto  tim- 
ber trucks.  Bear  in  mind  that  this  handling  of  material 
from  vessel  to  the  piling  points  requires,  in  a  majority  of 
cases,  the  handling  of  full  loads.  For  the  second  han- 
dling from  the  piling  points  to  the  sawmill,  lighter  trucks 
can  be  utilized  because  in  the  majority  of  instances  partial 
loads  will  be  hauled  and  delivered  from  piles  of  material 
that  has  already  been  sorted  for  quality  and  dimensions. 
Light  motor  or  electrically  driven  timber  carriers  are 
wonderful  labor-savers  for  transporting  material  to  saw- 
mills and  from  them  to  the  assembling  and  erecting  points. 
On  Fig.  71  is  shown  some  of  these  vehicles. 

For  the  actual  handling  of  material  in  sawmill,  there 
are  many  very  satisfactory  devices  available,  some  being 
power  driven  and  others  calling  for  the  use  of  manual 
labor  while  the  piece  of  timber  is  actually  being  machined. 

For  the  handling  of  heavy  straight  materials  through 
saws  and  beveling  machines,  the  best  kind  of  devices  are 
those  which  operate  by  power  and  have  both  vertical  and 
horizontal  movement,  capable  of  adjustment  for  speed, 
height  and  direction.  For  the  less  weighty  materials, 
and  for  handling  timber  through  band-saws,  moulders  and 
planers,  plain  rollers  and  tables  that  can  be  quickly  ad- 
justed in  position  are  best.  When  possible  to  do  so, 
the  materials  should  be  handled  direct  from  machine 
through  which  it  passes,  onto  the  truck  or  conveyance 
that  will  move  it  to  assembling  or  erecting  points.  To 
allow  material  to  be  piled  on  floor  of  sawmill  and  then 
handled  a  second  time  from  floor  to  truck  or  conveyor 
is  wasteful  of  time  and  adds  to  expense,  therefore  a  num- 


Flg.  72.     Traveling  Holsti  uid  Tracks  In  Shipyard 


ber  of  light  trucks  or  conveyors  is  preferable  to  ones  only 
adapted  for  carrying  heavy  loads. 

At  the  assembling  platforms  for  frames  at  points 
where  the  heavier  timbers  will  be  shaped  and  fastened 
by  the  shipbuilders,  and  at  the  slipway  where  vessel  is 
being  erected,  means  should  be  provided  for  handling 
materials  economically  and  rapidly,  and  I  do  not  know 
of  a  better  way  to  do  this  than  by  using  light,  portable 
steam-driven  hoists  or  cranes  that  travel  on  rails.  The 
rails  can  be  laid  along  the  most  desirable  routes  and  the 
hoists  can  pick  up  and  move  the  finished  pieces  in  the 
shortest  possible  time  and  with  a  minimum  of  hand 
labor. 

Hoists  of  the  kind  referred  to  are  clearly  shown  in 
operation  on  tracks  shown  on  Fig.  72. 

From  this  brief  description  you  can  readily  understand 
the  importance  of  carefully  planning  the  handling  and 
routing  of  materials  as  a  means  for  reducing  labor  costs 
and  speeding  up  production. 

I  do  not  know  of  anything  that  looks  more  inefficient 
than  to  see  a  large  number  of  workmen  handling  and  haul- 
ing material  by  hand  power,  and  the  men  assigned  to  do 
this  kind  of  work  are  neither  satisfied  with  their  job  or 
efficient  workmen.  In  addition  to  this  the  sight  of  men 
moving  along  at  low  speed  tends  to  slow  up  work  of  other 
and  more  efficient  workmen. 

Before  passing  to  my  next  explanation  I  want  to 
emphasize  this  point :  It  is  very  necessary  that  after  you 
have  planned  the  method  of  handling  and  routing  material 
you  should  take  pains  to  make  every  foreman  and  work- 
man clearly  understand  your  plan  and  the  reason  for  hav- 
ing it,  and  of  course  the  plan  should  be  made  as  simple 
as  possible  because  the  simpler  it  is  the  more  quickly  the 
average  workman  will  understand  it. 

(3d.)     Estimating  Amounts  of  Materials  Required 

Estimating,  if  done  accurately,  is  a  great  saving  of 
time  and  labor.  By  estimating,  I  mean  determining 
quantities,  kinds  and  dimensions  of  material  needed  for 
constructing  and  outfitting  the  entire  vessel;  and  if  the 
estimate  is  prepared  in  a  proper  manner  and  with  a  view 
to  it  being  of  greatest  value,  each  piece  of  material  should 
be  listed.  First,  for  kind,  dimensions,  quality  and  quan- 
tity, and  second,  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  needed.  The 
kind,  dimensions,  quantity  and  quality  list  is  generally 
prepared  by  the  estimator,  and  the  order  in  which  ma- 
terial is  needed  list  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
superintendent,  and  on  this  list  should  be  clearly  stated 
the  dates  each  piece  of  material  should  be  in  the  ship- 
yard ready  for  use. 

I  have  generally  found  that  if  the  second  list  is  pre- 
pared with  a  view  to  using  it  in  all  departments  for  keep- 
ing track  of  available  material,  it  will  prove  a  valuable 
aid  to  checking  materials  and  eliminating  delays  due  to 
non-delivery  of  materials.  How  this  is  done  can  best 
be  explained  by  describing  the  way  one  shipbuilding  firm 
prepares  the  list  and  uses  it  to  check  the  purchasing 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


85 


department's  work  and  deliveries.  In  yard  referred  to  a 
clerk,  under  the  direction  of  superintendent,  prepares  a 
list  of  materials,  on  which  is  listed  the  quantities  of  ma- 
terials required  for  each  principal  part  of  vessel  and  the 
date  each  item  should  be  in  the  yard.  On  this  list  there  is 
placed  against  each  item  three  blank  spaces,  or  squares, 
onto  which  is  pasted  different  colored  pasters.  When  an 
item  of  material  is  ordered  a  blue  paster  is  fastened  in 
the  first  square  opposite  item,  and  on  it  is  marked  three 
dates — the  first  indicating  date  ordered,  the  second  date 
delivery  of  material  is  promised,  and  the  third  a  safe  date 
when  material  .should  be  shipped  for  delivery  on  date 
promised.  In  second  blank  square,  against  an  item  a  red 
paster  is  fastened  whenever  shipment  date  arrives  and 
material  has  not  been  shipped.  The  safe  date  for  ship- 
ment is  usually  several  days  ahead  of  actual  date  ship- 
ment must  be  made,  thus  allowing  time  for  making  in- 
quiries. In  third  blank  Space,  against  each  item  is 
fastened  a  brown  paster  when  materials  are  in  yard 
ready  for  use.  Thus  by  having  a  boy  paste  the  neces- 
sary colors  against  each  item  at  the  beginning  of  each 
day,  it  is  possible,  at  a  glance,  for  each  head  of  a  depart- 
ment to  see  if  materials  are  ordered,  are  shipped  in  time 
to  insure  delivery,  or  are  in  yard  ready  for  use.  This 
system  is  so  simple  that  the  smallest  yard  can  use  it  and 
it  is  capable  of  being  advantageously  used  in  the  largest 
yards. 

It  is  unwise  and  unsafe  to  try  and  build  a  vessel 
without  using  some  system  for  keeping  track  of  material 
that  has  been  ordered,  and  the  system  should  always  be 
one  that  will  enable  the  purchasing  department  and  heads 
of  construction  to  keep  track  of  deliveries  and  require- 


ments, and  the  superintendent  and  men  in  charge  to  keep 
check  on  purchasing  department  and  on  materials  in  yard. 

(4th.)  Methods  of  Keeping  Track  of  Materials,  Progress 
of  Work,  Etc. 

These  should  be  adequate  and  sufficiently  simple  to 
enable  the  heads  of  departments  to  keep  posted  upon 
every  detail  of  work  progress.  One"  of  the  best  methods 
to  use  in  a  small  shipyard  is  the  combined  numeral  and 
color  method.  Before  work  on  a  vessel  is  started  a 
tabulated  list  of  each  principal  part  of  the  work  is  made 
out,  each  item  is  given  a  number,  and  against  each  item 
is  left  four  blank  columns,  or  spaces,  similar  to  the  ones 
left  on  estimating  sheets. 

The  heading  of  blank  columns  being: 

1st   column— ^Material  in  yard. 
2d   column— *Work  on  material  started. 
3d    column— •Assembling  in  ship  started. 
.4th  column— ^Assembling  in  ship  finished. 

When  list  is  prepared  the  superintendent  enters  in 
each  blank  space  dates  that  he  estimates  it  is  necessary 
to  have  materials  in  yard,  work  started,  assembling  begun, 
and  assembling  finished. 

This  list  now  becomes  the  yard's  prime  estimate  for 
work  completion,  and  track  is  kept  of  progress  of  work 
by  pasting  various  colored  pasters  in  the  squares  left 
against  each  item.  When  material  is  in  yard  a  brown 
paster  is  fastened  in  first  column,  but  if  there  is  danger 
of  material  not  being  delivered  in  yard  on  date  entered 
against  any  item,  then  a  red  paster  is  fastened  in  space. 
It  is  the  same  with  each  stage  of  progress  as  indicated 
by  headings  above  columns.     Should  date  when  work  on 


'^:^^^mi^^^ 


Fig.  72a.     Meacham  &  Babcock's  Wooden  Shipyard  at  SeatUe.     Four  3.500-Ton   Sliips  Under   Construction 


86 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


any  piece  of  material  arrive,  and  work  not  be  started,  a 
red  paster  is  fastened  in  the  space  and  this  remains  until 
work  is  started,  when  its  place  is  taken  by  a  paster  having 
one  half  blue  and  the  other  brown — the  blue  indicating 
that  work  was  started  late.  Of  course  on  each  paster  is 
written  dates  to  indicate  start  and  completion.  Thus  by 
looking  at  the  itemized  sheet,  it  is  possible  for  anyone 
interested  in  keeping  track  of  work  to  see  at  a  glance 
just  how  work  on  the  vessel  is  progressing.  A  line  of 
brown  pasters  in  fourth  column  will  indicate  that  all 
work  is  finished,  and  if  pasters  are  partly  brown  and 
partly  blue  they  will  indicate  that  while  work  is  finished 
it  was  not  finished  on  date  estimated. 

I  mentioned  that  each  principal  item  or  division  of 
work  is  given  a  numeral.  This  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  enabling  each  part  to  be  quickly  traced  through 
each  department  or  stage  of  work  and  kept  track  o^  by 
marking  its  numeral  on  the  piece,  and  it  also  enables 
workmen  to  indicate  on  their  time  cards  (if  cards  are 
used),  by  using  numbers,  the  pieces  they  have  worked 
on  during  each  day.     This  facilities  cost-keeping. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  I  mentioned  Manage- 
ment and  Supervision,  so  perhaps  it  will  be  advisable  for 
me  to  explain  my  meaning  of  these  things. 

IOC.     Management  and  Supervision 

Proper  and  adequate  yard  management  and  supervi- 
sion of  workmen  and  the  work  is  very  essential.  The 
manager  of  a  shipyard  should  have  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  ship-building  and  management  of  men  to  plan  every 
detail  of  the  work  of  supervision,  and  his  knowledge 
should  be  such  that  he  can  fairly  judge  whether  his  sub- 


ordinates are  properly  attending  to  their  duties  and  the 
work  is  progressing  at  estimated  rate. 

I  am  now  referring  only  to  the  production  manage- 
ment. I  have  found  that  the  only  way  to  keep  proper 
track  of  progress  of  work  and  costs  is  to  have  reports 
made  daily  and  to  have  each  superintendent  and  fore- 
man meet  at  least  once  a  week  for  discussion  of  the 
various  problems  that  arise  from  time  to  time.  No 
manager  can  achieve  success  by  trying  to  run  his  yard 
as  a  one-man  problem,  or  without  sincerely  cooperating 
with  his  assistants  and  keeping  them  fully  informed  of 
his  plans  and  intentions. 

The  manager  of  a  yard  should  carefully  plan  each  and 
every  detail  of  management  and  supervision  beforehand, 
and  having  planned  should  explain  everything  to  his 
assistants  and  insist  that  the  management  plan  be  adhered 
to. 

Some  of  the  daily  records  that  will  be  found  of 
value  are: 

I. — Records  of  number  of  men  at  work  in  yard  and 
on  each  job  of  work. 

2. — Records  of  foremen  in  charge  of  work  on  each 
job  and  number  of  men  under  each. 

3. — Records  of  daily  production  of  work  in  yard  and 
progress  of  work  on  each  job. 

4. — Records  of  materials  in  yard  and  on  order. 

5. — Records  of  amount  of  material  erected  and  cost. 

6. — Daily  averages  of  production,  of  cost  per  unit, 
and  of  cost  compared  with  selling  price. 

7. — Records  of  men  available  for  work  should  it  be 
necessary  to  increase  force. 

8. — Records  of  wasted  material,  and  mistakes  made 
in  the  various  departments. 


The  S.   T.   Allard  Beady  For  LanncUng 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


87 


In  planning  management  details,  I  have  found  it  ad- 
visable to  let  each  department  keep  their  own  records 
and  then  to  have  their  records  used  as  a  base  to  actually 
check  ever}'  item.  The  simpler  records  are,  and  the  more 
direct  the  information  they  give  is,  the  more  valuable  they 
will  prove. 

The  superintendents  of  work  should  not  only  know 
the  manager's  intention  but  they  should  also  be  kept  in- 
formed 'as  to  progress  of  work  and  its  actual  cost.  In- 
formation of  this  kind  should  come  direct  from  the 
manager's  office  and  should  be  in  such  form  that  it  can 
be  used  by  the  superintendent  to  check  his  prime  records 
and  figures.  It  is  very  important  that  superintendents 
keep  in  close  touch  with  foremen  in  charge  of  work  and 
see  that  the  essential  orders  of  yard  are  obeyed.  One 
record  that  will  prove  very  valuable  to  a  superintendent 
is  a  short  one  giving  the  number  of  men  used  for  han- 
dling material  by  hand  power,  the  amount  of  material  so 
handled  and  reason  why  it  is  necessary  to  use  men  in- 
stead of  machine  power. 

Another  record  that  is  of  great  value  is  one  con- 
taining suggestions  for  improvements.  Every  man  in  the 
employ  of  a  firm  should  be  encouraged  to  make  sugges- 
tions, and  if  any  suggestion  is  of  sufficient  value  to 
warrant  it  being  adopted  the  maker  of  the  suggestion 
should  receive  an  adequate  reward.  It  is  very  necessary 
that  superintendents  take  the  time  and  trouble  to  instruct 
foremen  and  leading  men  in  charge  of  work  as  to  their 
duties  and  methods  of  increasing  output.  Very  few  fore- 
men have  any  fixed  ideas  regarding  methods  of  directing 
men  and  laying  out  work;  and  for  this  reason  every 
superintendent  should  help  foreman  to  learn  the  best 
methods  of  directing  the  men  and  planning  work.  One 
very  necessary  essential  is  to  see  that  every  one  in  charge 
of  work  is  kept  posted  on  progress  and  cost,  and  if  there 
is  combined  with  this  figures  taken  from  a  preliminary 
estimate  of  cost  in  labor  for  each  principal  part  of  the 
work,  each  foreman  will  know  whether  he  is  ahead  or 
behind  the  schedule.  I  have  always  found  it  valuable  to 
have  this  information  given  to  each  foreman  at  least 
once  a  week.  Management  and  supervision  of  work  is 
a  comparatively  easy  matter  for  the  man  who  knows  how 
to  use  his  brains.  Many  foremen  and  superintendents 
forget  that  a  few  moments  of  thought  given  to  each 
problem  will  often  expedite  work  and  lessen  cost. 

lod.     Actual  Construction  Work 

I  will  now  begin  my  explanation  of  actual  construc- 
tion work.  Immediately  after  plans  are  ready,  or  re- 
ceived, they  are  sent  to  the  mould  loft  and  laid  down 
full  size;  the  mould  loftsmen  and  their  assistants  then 
make  the  necessary  full-sized  template  and  patterns  for 
the  builders. 

Laying  down  a  vessel's  lines  is  enlarging  them  to  full 
size,  and  making  full-sized  templates  is  making  full-sized 
patterns  of  parts  of  vessel  and  pieces  of  construction 


material  that  have  to  be  shaped  in  the  sawmill  or  by 
workmen.  On  Fig.  73  is  shown  some  of  the  templates 
made  and  work  done  in  a  mould  loft. 

The  laying-down  and  template  work  required  for  the 
construction  of  a  wooden  vessel  is  about  as  follows : 

(a)  Lines  must  be  laid  down  full  size  and  faired. 

(b)  The  shape  of  each  frame  of  vessel  must  be  laid 
down  full  size  and  templates  of  the  various  futtocks  and 
floors  made. 

(c)  The  construction  details  of  keel,  keelson,  stem, 
stern  and  other  principal  parts  of  the  structure  must  be 
laid  down  and  templates  must  be  made  of  the  pieces. 

(d)  Accurate  bevels  must  be  taken  of  every  frame 
and  of  every  necessary  detail. 

(e)  Essential  details  of  joiner  work  must  be  laid 
down  full  size  and  templates  of  the  details  made  or 
detail  rods  laid  out. 

(f)  From  time  to  time  during  the  actual  construc- 
tion work,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  refer  to  the  full- 
sized  construction  and  detail  plans,  therefore,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  keep  details  on  mould  loft  floor  until  con- 
struction has  progressed  sufficiently  to  insure  that  they 
will  not  be  needed. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  mould  loft  templates  are  made  and 
full-sized  framing  details  are  ready  the  work  of  con- 
struction can  begin. 

When  constructing  a  vessel  it  is  usual  to  begin  work 
on  keel,  stem,  stern  and  frames  simultaneously  and  then 
as  the  work  progresses,  the  other  pieces  of  material  are 
got  out  in  their  proper  order  and  sufficiently  ahead  of 
requirements  to  insure  that  they  will  be  ready  when 
needed. 

In  this  description  I  will  follow  the  usual  construc- 
tion procedure  and  describe  each  principal  part  of  the 
work  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  usually  done. 

loe.     Keel  Blocks 
Arranging  blocks  to  receive  keel  is  really  a  part  of 
the  construction  work.     These  blocks  are  set  out  at  proper 


Fig.  73.     Mould  Loft  Work 


88 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  li.     Assembling  a  Frame 

intervals  along  center  of  building  slip  and  they  must  be 
arranged  correctly  as  to  location  and  height.  The  essen- 
tial things  to  remember  when  arranging  keel  blocks  is 
to  have  them  sufficiently  high  at  lowest  keel  block  to 
enable  workmen  to  work  under  vessel,  and  at  the  same 
time  their  inclination  must  be  in  accordance  with  plans, 
and  correct  for  the  inclination  of  building  slip  and  launch- 
ing ways.  In  chapter  on  Launching  Ways  this  is  ex- 
plained more  fully. 

lof.  Keel 
This  is  the  principal  longitudinal  timber  of  a  vessel 
and  is  the  first  timber  to  put  in  position.  It  extends 
from  stem  to  stern  and  is  the  timber  upon  which  the 
whole  structure  is  erected.  The  dimensions  of  keel,  and 
in  fact  of  every  piece  of  timber  in  a  vessel,  is  usually 
stated  in  Construction  Specifications.  In  almost  every 
instance  dimensions  selected  are  the  ones  stipulated  in 
Lloyd's  rules.  In  selecting  keel  material  these  rules 
should  govern : 

(a)  The  material  should  be  durable  when  immersed 
in  water,  should  be  in  as  long  lengths  as  possible,  and 
scarphs  should  be  located  in  such  positions  that  they  will 
receive  the  maximum  support  from  other  pieces  of  timber. 

(b)  Scarphs  of  keel  should  always  be  nibbed  and^t 
is  advantageous  to  use  coaks  in  keel  scarphs. 

(c)  Fastenings  of  keel  scarphs  should  always  be  Suffi- 
cient in  number  and  of  proper  size.  Never  use  a  fewer 
number  of  fastenings  than  is  called  for  by  Lloyd's  rules. 

(d)  The  material  used  for  a  keel  should  be  well  sea- 
soned and  free  from  knots  and  defects  that  lessen 
strength.  Sapwood  should  not  appear  on  any  keel  tim- 
ber. 

When  getting  out  keel  timbers  it  is  usuaj,  to  omit 
cutting  rabbet  at  ends,  because  this  portion  of  rabbet  can 
always  be  more  accurately- cut  after  stem  and  sti^  posts 
are  in  place. 

On  Fig.  29  a  keel  is  shown  being  set  in  position  on 
building  blocks.  ^^ 

The  location  of  every  frame,  obtained   from  mould 


loft  floor  drawing,  must  be  clearly  marked  on  keel,  and 
the  fastenings  of  keel  scarphs  should  be  located  in  posi- 
tions clear  of  all  frame  fastenings.  In  a  modern  ship- 
yard, keel  timbers  are  obtained  slightly  larger  than  re- 
quired dimensions  and  run  through  a  four-sided  plane 
to  smooth  surfaces  and  reduce  the  timber  to  proper 
dimensions. 

The  scarphs  can  be  partly  cut  on  a  shipyard  band- 
saw,  providing  proper  carriers  for  the  keel  timbers  are 
used,  and  the  saw  is  installed  in  a  position  that  will 
allow  room  for  keel  to  swing  to  right  and  left.  In  all 
cases  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  complete  the  fitting  of 
keel  scarph  by  hand,  and  it  is  always  advisable  to  paint 
or  treat  the  surface  of  scarphs  before  fastening  them  to- 
gether. After  keel  pieces  are  placed  in  position  on  blocks 
they  are  fastened  together  by  driving  the  scarph  bolts 
and  then  the  keel  is  aligned  and  secured  in  position  on 
blocks.  It  is  very  necessary  to  have  keel  timber  abso- 
lutely straight  from  end  to  end. 

While  keel  timbers  are  being  got  ready,  work  on  stem, 
stern,  deadwood,  keelson  timbers,  floors  and  frames  is 
proceeding  and  just  as  soon  as  keel  is  set  in  position  the 
frames,  and  then  the  stem,  stern,  deadwood  and  keel- 
sons can  be  erected  and  fastened. 

lOg.     Getting  Out  the  Frames 

The  frames  of  a  wooden  vessel  are  always  composed 
of  several  pieces  of  timber,  sawed  to  required  shape  and 
fastened  together  to  form  the  frame.  The  lowest  piece 
of  each  frame,  called  the  floor  timber,  fits  across  and  is 
notched  over  keel,  and  each  succeeding  piece  from  keel 
up  is  named  a  futtock  and  has  a  numeral  added  to  in- 
dicate location  relative  to  keel.  Thus  the  piece  next  the 
floor  timber  is  termed  the  first  futtock,  the  piece  next 
above,  the  second  futtock,  and  so  on  upwards  until  the 
last  piece  is  reached.     The  last  or  upper  piece  of  each 


Fig.  76.     Assembling  a  Midslilp  Frame 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


89 


Fig.  76.     SettlnK  Up  a  Frame 

frame  is  called  the  top  timber.  On  Fig.  28  each  futtock 
is  indicated. 

The  method  of  fastening  futtocks  together  is  by  doub- 
ling, allowing  their  ends  to  lap,  and  then  bolting  the 
doubled  pieces  together.  On  Fig.  28  is  shown  the  various 
joinings  of  the  piece  and  bolts  that  fasten  them  together. 
Frames  built  up  in  this  manner  are  called  double  because 
the  material  is  doubled  in  thickness  by  the  lapping  of 
joints.  Thus  a  6-inch  sided  doubled  frame  is  practically 
12  inches  sided  measure. 

The  shape  of  each  frame  is  obtained  from  full-sized 
mould  loft  drawing,  the  templates  and  bevels  being  used 
by  the  millmen  when  they  saw  the  pieces  of  material  to 
proper  shape.  In  a  modern  shipyard  each  and  every 
piece  of  a  vessel's  frame  is  accurately  beveled  and  shaped, 
inside  and  outside,  in  the  sawmill,  and  all  that  the  ship 
carpenters  have  to  do  is  to  assemble  the  pieces  and  place 
cross  spalls  in  position  to  prevent  frame  getting  out  of 
shape  during  the  erection  work. 

On  Fig.  74  is  shown  some  workmen  assembling  the 
pieces  of  a  forward  frame.  Note  the  bevel  of  outer  edge 
and  how  the  bolt  holes  are  being  drilled  at  an  inclination 
from  perpendicular,  also  on  Fig.  75  is  shown  a  midship 
body  frame  being  assembled  on  one  of  the  assembling 
platforms.  Note  the  cross  spalls.  In  some  shipyards 
frames  are  assembled  on  platforms  located  some  distance 
from  the  vessel,  and  in  others  they  are  assembled  just 
ahead  or  aft  of  a  vessel  and  then  moved  to  their  proper 
location  and  erected. 

There  seems  to  be  a  preference  for  beginning  the 
erection  of  a  vessel's  frame  at  or  near  to  amidships  and 
then  working  both  aft  and  forward. 

I  will  describe  the  work  of  erecting  a  framfe  in  posi- 
tion. 

A  timber  runway  or  platform  is  placed  each  side  of 
keel  at  a  proper  height  and  distance  from  center  of  keel 
line  to  enable  workmen  to  use  platform  or  runways  for 


working  on.  On  Fig.  76  such,  a  runway  is  shown  and 
on  Fig.  yy  men  are  shown  moving  the  platform  timbers. 
A  frame  is  moved  to  its  location  on  keel  and  laid  down 
on  platform,  then  by  means  of  a  derrick  it  is  hoisted  up- 
right and  placed  in  position.  When  in  position  on  keel 
it  is  necessary  to  plumb  and  secure  the  frame  against 
moving.  This  work  is  done  in  th'e  following  manner: 
On  the  upper  cross  spall  a  center  line  is  marked  and  when 
frame  is  in  position,  but  before  it  is  secured  to  keel,  a 
plumb  is  dropped  from  center  mark  on  spall.  If  the 
point  of  plumb  bob  strikes  center  longitudinal  line  marked 
on  top  of  keel  it  indicates  that  frame  is  set  plumb  in  one 
direction  (transversely).  To  find  out  whether  frame  is 
plumb  in  longitudinal  direction,  measure  distance  at  keel 
between  plumb  bob  and  frame  and  also  distance  from 
cross  spall  to  keel ;  then,  knowing  the  inclination  that 
keel  is  set  on  keel  blocks  and  these  two  measures,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  calculate  whether  frame  is  properly 
plumbed  or  not.  Of  course  measurements  at  keel  and 
cross  spall  must  be  made  from  the  same  edge  of  frame. 

When  frame  is  plumbed  it  must  be  secured  against 
movement  by  placing  shores  against  it,  and  then  it  can 
be  secured  to  keel  by  driving  one  of  the  frame  to  keel 
fastenings. 

Bear  in  mind  that  the  majority  of  keelson  fastenings 
go  through  frames  into  keel  and  serve  to  secure  both 
keelson  and  frames  to  keel,  therefore,  as  it  is  undesirable 
to  bore  a  large  number  of  fastenings  holes  through 
frames,  only  the  minimum  number  of  fastenings  should 
be  driven  when  frames  are  first  erected.  After  the  first 
frame  is  set  in  place,  the  other  frames  are  placed  in 
position,  the  men  working  towards  both  bow  and  stern 
and  regulating  each  frame  by  making  measurements  to 


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WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


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riK.   77.     Moving  a  Framing  Platform 

prove  that  "room  and  space"  between  frames  is  correct 
and  frames  properly  set  and  "horned".  The  usual 
method  of  proving  that  a  frame  is  horizontally  square 
with  keel  is  to  "horn"  it,  or  prove  its  accuracy  by  measur- 
ing from  a  point  on  keel,  some  distance  ahead  (or  aft) 
of  frame  being  horned,  out  to  sheer  line  marked  on  each 
side  of  top  timber  of  frame.  If  the  frame  is  set  correctly 
the  distance  from  point  on  keel  to  starboard  top  timber 
sheer  line  on  a  frame  will  be  identically  the  same  as  the 
measure  from  same  point  to  port  top  timber  sheer  line. 
Of  course  plumb  bob  can  also  be  used  to  prove  accuracy 
in  a  transverse  direction. 

As  each  frame  is  erected  and  secured,  it  is  shored  and 
held  in  position  by  fastening  it  to  the  adjoining  frame 
with  short  cleats,  and  after  several  frames  are  erected 
they  are  regulated,  faired,  and  held  in  position  by  fasten- 
ing ribband  battens  near  to  bilge,  to  sheer,  and  along 
bottom.  On  Fig.  78  bilge  ribband  batten  is  shown  shored 
in  position. 

While  the  frames  of  middle  body  are  being  erected, 
other  gangs  of  men  can  be  putting  forward  and  after 
deadwoods  in  place  and  erecting  the  stem  and  stern 
posts,  so  that  by  the  time  cant  frames  are  ready  to  erect 
the  deadwood  will  be  in  position  to  receive  them. 

I  have  already  explained  that  cant  frames  are  erected 
at  varying  angles  to  the  perpendicular  and  are  located  at 
and  near  to  bow  and  stern.  On  Fig.  80  the  forward 
cant  frames  are  clearly  shown.  Cant  frames  are  shaped, 
assembled,  and  erected  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
square  frames  are,  but  it  is  usual  to  use  harpin  ribbands 
forward  for  the  purpose  of  holding  forward  cants  in 
position  while  being  fastened,  and  to  run  in  some  short 
stern  ribband  aft  to  hold  after  cants  in  position. 

Cant  frames  are  generally  mortised  into  deadwood 
and  fastened  to  deadwood  or  stem,  or  stem  by  means  of 
bolts  that  pass  through  frames,  deadwood,  stem,  or  stern. 

In  large  vessels  strength  is  added  to  the  bottom  fram- 
ing by  inserting  filling  frames  between  the  regular  tim- 


bers of  the  frame.  If  you  will  turn  to  plans  of  vessel 
shown  on  Fig.  205,  you  will  note  that  there  is  an  open 
space  between  each  frame.  This  open  space  is  filled  with 
floors  or  short  frames  that  extend  from  keel  to  about  the 
turn  of  bilge,  the  purpose  of  these  being  to  strengthen  the 
bottom  of  vessel  and  prevent  dirt  accumulating  in  open 
spaces  between  frames.  In  the  days  before  iron  and  steel 
were  used  for  ship-building  it  was  usual  to  have  the  filling 
frames  extend  well  above  turn  of  bilge,  to  fit  and  wedge 
them  closely  against  frames  and  then  to  properly  caulk 
all  the  seams  between  frames,  thus  making  the  whole 
bottom  of  a  vessel  absolutely  watertight  before  the  plank- 
ing was  put  on,  and  greatly  adding  to  strength  to  resist 
hogging  and  sagging  strains.  In  these  days,  however, 
the  use  of  steel  diagonal  straps  and  arches  has,  to  a  large 
extent,  done  away  with  the  necessity  for  using  filling 
frames  as  a  means  for  strengthening  the  structures  of 
small  and  moderate  sized  vessel.  Filling  frames  should 
be  used  in  large  vessels. 

loh.     The  Stem,  Apron  and  Deadwood 

The  shapes  of  these  are  obtained  from  mould  loft, 
and  by  using  the  templates  and  bevels  made  in  mould 
loft  the  various  pieces  of  material  can  be  properly  shaped, 
beveled,  and  partially  finished  in  sawmill.  The  stem  is 
usually  composed  of  several  pieces  of  material  fastened 
together  with  through  bolts  in  the  manner  designated 
on  plans.     Stem  is  assembled,  rabbeted  to  receive  plank- 


FiK.  78.     Erecting  a  Stem 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


91 


Fig.   79.      Stem,    Deadwood   and   Frame    Set   Up 

ing,  then  raised  to  its  position,  plumbed  and  properly 
fastened. 

Now  a  word  about  fastening  the  large  timbers  of  a 
vessel  such  as  keel,  stem,  deadwood,  frame,  etc. 

In  a  modern  shipyard  nearly  all  hand  drilling  for 
fastening  has  been  replaced  by  air-operated  machine  drill- 
ing, and  it  is  very  necessary  to  remember  that  the  old 
hand  drilling  for  fastenings  rules  do  not  give  satisfactory 
results  if  followed  when  holes  are  drilled  by  air-operated 
machines.  With  hand-operated  augers  the  practice  is  to 
use  an  auger  that  is  one-eighth  smaller  than  fastening, 
and  this  rule  is  satisfactory  because  the  hole  bored  by  a 
hand-operated  auger  is  never  very  much  larger  than  the 
actual  size  of  auger  and,  the  metal  used   for  fastening 


being  slightly  in  excess  of  designated  size,  the  fastening 
will  drive  tightly  and  hold  securely.  But  when  air- 
machine  augers  are  used  the  high  speed  of  rotation,  com- 
bined with  the  difficulty  of  holding  drilling  machine  per- 
fectly steady  and  the  necessity  for  withdrawing  auger  a 
number  of  times  while  boring  a  hole  for  a  long  fastening, 
usually  causes  the  auger  to  bore  ah  oblong  hole  that  is 
materially  larger  than  auger.  It  therefore  is  essential 
that  a  smaller  size  of  auger  be  used  when  boring  holes 
with  an  air-operated  machine  than  is  called  for  by  the 
hand-operated  auger  requirements.  I  believe  the  size 
of  auger  should  be  not  less  than  3/16-inch  under  fasten- 
ing, and  I  have  found  it  sometimes  necessary  to  use  an 
auger  ^-inch  smaller.  Much  depends  upon  the  skill 
of  operator  and  the  care  with  which  he  withdraws  and 
inserts  auger  while  hole  is  being  drilled. 

On  Fig.  81  and  Fig.  8ia  air-operated  augers  are 
shown  in  operation. 

A  fastening  that  will  drive  easily  into  its  hole  is 
worthless  and  aside  from  its  insecurity  is  liable  to  leak. 
The  old  practice  of  having  the  fastening  hole  so  small 
that  fastening  will  head  perfectly  while  driving  is  an  ex- 
cellent one  to  follow  and  the  old  rule  that  required  each 
fastening  to  drive  not  over  J4  inch  under  each  of  the  last 
six  full  blows  is  also  a  most  excellent  one  to  adhere  to. 

Many  present-day  defects  in  wooden  vessel  construc- 
tion are  due  to  insecurity  of  fastenings,  through  the 
holes  into  which  they  are  inserted  being  too  large. 


Hg.  80.     Wooden  SMp-Bulldlng  on  the  Pacific  Coast.     Tie  City  of  St.  Helens  In  Frame  at  the  Yard  of  the  St.  Helens,  Ore..  Shipbuilding  Company 


92 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


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Fig.  81.     The  Little  David  Pneumatic  Boring  Machine  Makes  Light  Work 

of  the  Deep  Holes  Required  in  the  Giant  Keelsons.     The  Operator 

Has  to  Have  Only  a  Straight  Eve  and  a  Steady  Hand,  For  His 

Task  Is  Rut  to  Guide  the  Tool 


Continuing  Remarks  About  Stem 

On  Figs.  78  and  79  a  stem  is  shown  in  position  and  on 
Fig-  36  is  shown  two  construction  details  of  forward 
deadwood  and  stem  of  wooden  vessels. 

loi.     Stern-Post  and  After  De.adwood  Construction 

The  shape  of  stern-post,  its  deadwood,  and  the  count- 
er timbers  for  stern  is  obtained  from  templates  made  in 
mould  loft  and,  as  in  the  case  of  stem  and  its  deadwood, 
the  various  pieces  of  material  are  sawed  into  shape  and 
partly  fashioned  in  the  sawmill.  The  erection  of  stern- 
post  and  its  adjoining  timbers  is  done  in  this  manner : 
First  the  stern-post  and  its  knee  is  plumbed  and  secured  in 
place  and  then  the  deadwood  and  counter  timbers  are 
placed  in  position  and  fastened.  On  Fig.  37  is  shown  the 
construction  details  of  stern  of  a  vessel  and  on  Fig.  82  is 
shown  photographs  of  stern-post  framing.  After  stem 
and  stern  with  their  deadwoods  are  erected  the  cutting 
of  rabbet  is  completed  and  then  the  whole  frame  is  proved 
and   regulated. 

Fig.  90  shows  a  vessel  in  frame  ready  for  planking. 

loj.     The  Keelson  Construction 

While  the  stem  and  stern-post  are  being  erected  and 
fastened,  the  lower  keelson  timbers  should  be  got  ready 
to  fasten  in  place  and  just  as  soon  as  the  frame  is  prop- 
erly erected  and  faired,  the  keelsons  can  be  fastened  in 
place.  Keelson  timbers  are  generally  got  out  in  sawmill 
in  the  same  manner  that  keel  timbers  are  got  out,  and 
scarphs  should  be  nibbed  ones.  It  is  advantageous  to 
coak  all  keelson  scarphs. 

When  laying  out  locations  of  keelson  scarphs,  it  is 


essential  to  locate  them  in  positions  that  are  not  too  close 
to  keel  scarphs  and  to  make  scarphs  extend  over  at  least 
three  frames.  In  addition  to  this  scarphs  of  the  rider 
keelson  should  be  widely  separated  from  those  of  keelson 
proper. 

It  is  advantageous  to  let  keelson  into  floors  for  about 
one  inch,  because  by  doing  this  the  keelson  obtains  a 
firmer  base  to  rest  upon  and  is  strengthened  against  side 
movement. 

On  illustrations  Nos.  201,  202,  205,  206,  212  are 
shown  details  of  three  kinds  of  keelson  construction. 

Fig.  201  shows  the  most  advanced  type  of  construc- 
tion, consisting  of  a  combination  of  steel  and  wood  ar- 
ranged in  such  a  manner  that  the  maximum  of  resistance 
against  longitudinal  strains  is  obtained  with  a  minimum 
weight  of  material. 

The  Fig.  201  keelson  as  you  will  note  is  a  built-up  / 
beam  having  its  lower  members  secured  to  floors  and  its 
upper  member  fastened  to  steel  plating  that  rests  on,  and 
is  fastened  to  the  ceiling  of  floor.  The  pieces  of  ceiling 
next  to  keelson  fit  against  and  edge-bolt  through  the 
steel  plate  web,  thus  tying  the  whole  structure  together. 
On  Fig.  84  is  shown  another  type  of  steel  keelson  con- 
struction, consisting  of  a  top  steel  plate  riveted  to  built- 
up  side  members  composed  of  angles  and  plates.  On  Fig. 
84a  cross-section  details  of  a  keelson  of  this  kind  are 
shown.  The  keelson  construction  shown  on  Fig.  202 
cross-section  view  is  an  all-wood  keelson  composed  of 
three  lower  and  three  upper  pieces  of  timber  securely 
fastened  together  and  to  the  floors  of  vessel.  You  will 
note  by  referring  to  the  longitudinal  view  that  both  the 
upper  and  lower  center  keelson  timbers  extend  from  bow 
to  stern  and  are  properly  scarphed  into  and  securely 
fastened  to  deadwood  forward  and  extend  aft  to  form  a 
portion  of  after  deadwood.  It  is  most  important  to  have 
keelsons  extend  the  whole  length  of  a  vessel  and  fasten 
them  to  forward  and  after  deadwoods  in  such  a  manner 


Courtesy  of  IngersoU-Rand  Company 

Fig.   81a.     The   Pneumatic   Drift   Bolt   Driver   Hammering   Home    a  Long 

1>4-In.  Bolt  Through   a  Deck  Ream  and  Its  Supporting  Sturdy 

Sill.     The    Bolt    Disappears    Into    Its    Hole    With 

Astonishing   Rapidity 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


93 


that  there  will  not  be  any  weakness  of  structure  at  points 
of  termination  of  keelsons. 

On  Figs.  205  and  206  are  shown  longitudinal  views  of 
large  vessel  keelson  construction  similar  to  the  one  shown 
on  Fig.  202.  In  this  construction  the  keelsons  are  com- 
posed of  three  tiers  of  timbers,  instead  of  the  two  shown 
on  Fig.  202,  and  you  will  note  that  the  two  lower  tiers 
are  put  in  place  before  stemson  and  after  deadwood  is, 
and  that-the  upper  tier  of  timbers  rests  on  and  is  fastened 
to  stemson  forward  and  deadwood  aft.  On  Figs.  36  and 
37  are  shown  details  of  another  method  of  scarphing 
upper  piece  of  keelson  to  stemson  and  deadwood. 

On  Fig.  212  is  shown  cross-section  and  longitudinal 
views  of  another  type  of  wood  keelson  construction  suit- 
able for  a  large  vessel.  This  construction  is  composed 
of  two  lower  tiers  of  timbers  each  of  which  is  composed 
of  three  members  edge-bolted  together  as  well  as  being 
fastened  securely  to  the  floors.  On  top  of  these  is 
fastened  three  additional  tiers  of  timbers  each  being 
composed  of  one  timber.  Thus  the  whole  keelson  makes 
a  solid  structure  of  an  inverted  T  shape  all  members  of 
which  extend  from  stem  to  stern.  Under  hatch  openings 
it  is  usual  to  secure  an  additional  short  piece  of  timber 
on  top  of  keelson  and  then  cover  the  portion  of  keelson 
under  opening  with  steel  plates,  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting it  against  damage  when  loading  and  unloading 
cargo. 

The  essentials  in  keelson  construction  are : 

(a)  To  have  the  keelson  sufficiently  deep  to  with- 


stand  longitudinal   strains    tending   to    hog   or    sag   the 
whole  structure. 

(b)  To  fasten  keelson  securely  to  keel  frame,  stem- 
son  and  to  after  deadwood,  thus  making  keelson  and  all 
parts  mentioned  above  one  longitudinal  member  of  the 
ship's  structure,  and  at  the  same  time  adding  strength  to 
transverse  members  of  structure.       * 

loj'.     Other  Methods  of  Keelson  Construction 

In  some  of  the  larger  sailing  vessels  now  being  con- 
structed the  keelson  structure,  in  place  of  being  straight 
on  top,  as  shown  on  Fig.  212,  is  formed  in  the  shape  of  an 
arch.  In  a  keelson  of  this  kind  the  three  lower  tiers  of 
timber  extend  from  stem  to  stern  in  manner  shown  on 
Fig.  212,  and  after  these  are  secured  an  arch  is  built  up 
on  top  of  keelson  by  forming  several  timbers  and  bend- 
ing them  in  place  on  top  of  the  lower  tiers.  Each  suc- 
ceeding timber  of  the  arch  is  longer  than  the  one  below, 
and  the  last,  or  upper,  timber  reaches  to  the  stemson 
forward  and  deadwood  aft,  and  is  scarphed  to  these  struc- 
tures. On  Fig.  85  is  shown  details  of  this  kind  of  keel- 
son  construction. 

One  objection  to  this  kind  of  keelson  construction  is 
the  large  amount  of  material  required  for  its  construction, 
and  another  is  the  weakness  at  point  of  junction  of  for- 
ward end  of  arch  with  stemson. 

This  arch  construction  is  a  development  of  the  center 
line  longitudinal  bulkhead  construction  that  has  been  tried 
out  in  several  vessels. 


Pig.  82.     Setting  Up  the  Stern 


94 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Tig.  84.     Steel  Keelson 

I  will  now  describe  and  illustrate  the  most  advanced 
development  of  the  arch  type  of  keelson. 

On  Fig.  86  is  shown  details  of  a  longitudinal  trussed 
keelson  composed  of  wood  and  steel.  Keelson  of  this 
kind  has  the  advantage  of  possessing  the  maximum  of 
strength  with  a  minimum  weight.  Of  course  the  mem- 
bers must  be  properly  fitted  and  the  whole  structure  se- 
curely fastened  to  keel,  frame,  stemson  and  stern  framing. 
For  a  structure  of  this  kind  it  is  advantageous  to  revert 
to  old  timber  bridge  construction  methods  and  use  steel 
tie-rods  and  straps,  details  of  a  number  of  which  are 
shown  on  Fig.  86a. 

Another  advanced  development  of  keelson  construc- 
tion is  an  all-steel  trussed  keelson  to  which  hold  stan- 
chions deck  beams  and  transverse  framing  are  secured 
as  well  as  the  longitudinal  members  of  the  ship's  struc- 
ture. This  type  of  keelson  construction  is  shown  on  Fig. 
87  and  possesses  many  advantages  over  the  wood  keelson 
for  large  sailing  vessel  construction. 

Still  another  development  is  the  reinforced  concrete 
keelson.  Deep  keelson  construction  of  the  types  referred 
to  above  are  not  suitable  for  vessels  in  which  machinery 


is  installed  unless  the  top  of  machinery  foundation  is 
located  sufificiently  high  to  allow  keelson  to  pass  below 
engines  and  boilers  without  reduction  of  its  height  above 
keel.  In  the  case  of  the  steel  trussed  keelson  the  trussing 
along  machinery  foundation  space  can  be  arranged 'to 
allow  machinery  foundation  timbers  to  be  fastened  to  and 
strengthened  by  the  keelson  structure,  and  in  one  instance 
as  keelson  approaches  the  machinery  space  it  is  divided 
into  two  members  which  pass  each  side  of  machinery 
foundation  space  at  a  proper  distance  to  allow  the  steel 
foundation  to  be  members  fitted  between  the  two  keel- 
son members. 

Details  of  this  kind  of  construction  are  shown  on  Fig. 
43b. 

lok.     Steel  Strapping  of  Frame 

When  frame  is  regulated  it  is  faired  inside  and  out- 
side by  dubbing  off  irregularities  and  then,  if  steel 
diagonal  straps  or  arch  straps  are  to  be  used,  they  are 
fitted  and  fastened  in  place. 

In  all  vessels  built  of  wood  there  is  a  continual  ten- 
dency for  the  longitudinal  members  of  structure  to  alter 
their  shape  and,  especially  in  large  vessels,  no  amount  of 
additional  wood  material  is  capable  of  resisting  this  ten- 
dency to  alter  longitudinal  shape  as  efficiently  as  steel 
straps  will.  It,  therefore,  has  become  usual  to  insert 
steel  diagonal  straps  outside  the  frames  of  all  wood  ves- 
sels, and  in  larger  ones  these  are  supplemented  by  steel 
arch  straps  fastened  inside  or  outside  the  frames. 

Method  of  crossing  diagonal  straps  outside  of  frames 
is  shown  on  Fig.  49  and  on  Fig.  88  is  shown  details  of 
method  of  fastening  straps  to  frames,  at  crossing  points 
and  to  longitudinal  sheer  strap. 

Fig.  25  also  shows  steel  diagonal  strap  locations 
marked  by  dotted  lines,  and  on  Table  3 A  (page  21)  is 
given  dimensions  of  steel  straps  used  on  vessels  of  named 
sizes. 

Section  39,  Lloyd's  rules,  specifies  that  proportion  of 
breadth  to  length  and  depth  to  length  shall  regulate  the 


^■- 


f^^^ 


,ri 


W'*. 


Tig.   83. 


Motoishlp  James  Tlmpsou,   Built  by  the  O.  M.  Standlfer  Construction  Company  at  Portland,  Ore. 

Designed  by  Coz  b  Stevens 


A  Correctly-Sbaped  Elliptical  Stern 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


95 


flf^aL£--^ 


Fig  a^ 


KEEL 


number  of  straps,  that  tonnage  shall  regulate  the  dimen- 
sions of  straps,  that  lower  ends  of  straps  must  reach  to, 
at  least,  halfway  between  long  floor  heads  and  first  fut- 
tocks  and  upper  ends  to  upper  tier  of  beams.  All  straps 
must  be  let  in  flush  with  outside  edge  of  frames  by  re- 
moving a  proper  depth  and  width  of  wood  from  each 
frame  at  point  where  strap  crosses.  The  steel  strap  arch 
is  also  let  in  and  fastened  to  every  frame  it  crosses. 
This  arch  should  begin  at  stemson  forward,  rise  in  a  fair 
sweep  until  it  reaches  the  upper  deck  line  near  to  the 
midship  section,  and  from  this  point  it  should  drop  in  a 
fair  sweep  until  it  reaches  after  deadwood  a  short  dis- 
tance ahead  of  stern-post. 

You  can  readily  understand  that  a  vessel  strapped 
with  both  diagonal  and  arch  straps  has  a  greater  power 
of  resistance  against  longitudinal  strains  than  one  con- 
structed in  the  old  manner  with  caulked  filling  timbers  for 
its  entire  length  and  a  large  number  of  wooden  riders  or 
iron.  It  is  very  essential  to  have  tension  of  every  strap 
as  nearly  alike  as  possible  and  to  have  all  strap  fasten- 
ings properly  driven  into  frames. 

When  straps  are  let  into  frames  and  fastened  the  work 
of  planking  can  begin,  and  at  the  same  time  the  ceiling, 
the  deck  beams  and  pieces  that  compose  the  deck  fram- 
ing can  be  got  ready. 

lol.     Planking 

I  have  explained  in  Chapter  VIII  that  planking 
is  the  name  given  to  outside  covering  of   frame,   and 


that  it  is  put  on  in  planks  called  strakes,  that  run  in  fair 
curves  from  bow  to  stern.  For  thickness  of  planking  to 
use  see  Tables  given  in  Chapter  III  (page  21),  and  I 
also  refer  you  to  cross-sections  of  plans  Nos.  201,  202, 
212,  213,  on  which  are  clearly  marked  the  general  dimen- 
sions of  planking  at  various  points  from  keel  to  sheer. 
When  planking  a  vessel  the  garboarcf  is  the  first  plank  to 
fit  and  fasten  in  place. 

loP.     Laying  a  Garboard 

As  the  lower  edge  of  garboard  must  fit  snugly  into  the 
rabbet  of  keel  it  is  necessary  that  the  rabbet  cut  along 
keel,  stem,  deadwood  and  stern  be  properly  faired  before 
a  garboard  can  be  laid.  The  ship-carpenters  usually  fair 
this  rabbet  before  taking  measurements  for  garboard 
(called  spiling),  and  when  rabbet  is  fair  garboard  meas- 
urements are  taken,  a  template  made,  if  it  is  necessary 
to  do  so,  and  garboard  planks  got  out  to  shape  and  fitted 
in  place. 

The  width  of  available  material  usually  determines 
the  width  that  garboard  will  be  at  its  widest  point,  and  as 
it  is  essential  that  width  of  garboard  and  of  all  planking 
strakes  be  properly  proportioned  from  end  to  end,  it  is 
advisable  that  width  marks  for  each  plank  be  laid  off  at 
several  frames  before  any  planking  is  got  out.  This  is 
done  by  carefully  measuring  from  rabbet  of  keel  to  sheer 
around  outside  of  midship  frame  and  dividing  this  meas- 
urement by  the  number  of  strakes  the  plans  specify 
that  vessel's  planking  shall  consist  of.  The  widths  of 
strakes  at  midship  section  are  very  often  given  on  cross- 
section  plan  of  vessel's  construction  (see  Fig.  202,  cross- 
section)  and  may  vary  at  diflferent  points,  but  the  essen- 
tial thing  to  remember  when  laying  out  planking  marks 
is  to  have  the  proper  number  of  strakes  at  midship 
(widest)  section.  The  planking  marks  are  scribed  across 
outside  face  of  midship  frame  and  when  this  has  been 
done  each  line  indicates  where  upper  edge  of  each  strake 
of  planking  must  reach  to  at  midship  section. 

When  midship  section  planking  lines  have  been  laid 
out  measurements  are  taken  around  several  frames  located 
at  equal  intervals  between  midship,  stem  and  stern,  care 
being  taken  to  have  the  same  number  of  marks  on  all 
frames  (except  in  cases  where  a  strake  of  planking  termi- 
nates before  it  reaches  one  of  the  marked  frames). 
Thus  when  the  selected  frames  have  been  measured  and 


ng.  86.     Arcbed  Wood  Keelson 


96 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


plank  marks  scribed  across  their  outside  faces,  a  series 
of  lines  appear  on  the  outside  of  frames  and  each  line 
indicates  where  a  seam  of  planking  will  be  located. 

Some  shipbuilders  make  a  practice  of  going  still 
further  and  by  means  of  battens  and  chalk  lines  they  run 
each  plank  line  and,  when  they  have  proved  its  accuracy, 
scribe  it  across  the  outside  face  of  every  frame.  This 
is  a  most  excellent  plan  and  will  sometimes  enable  greater 
planking  speed  to  be  made,  because  planking  can  be  spiled 
well  ahead  of  planking  gang's  requirements. 

To  take  the  shape,  or  "spiling"  for  a  plank  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  tack  a  thin  plank  of  material  (about  ^- 
inch  thick),  that  is  sufficiently  wide  to  prevent  its  bend- 
ing edgeways,  along  the  outside  of  frames  and  as  near 
as  possible  to  position  where  plank  will  fill.  For  gar- 
board  this  thin  plank  would  be  fastened  with  its  lower 
edge  an  inch  or  so  out  from  rabbet,  then  the  ship-carpenter 
sets  a  pair  of  dividers  to  a  width  that  will  allow  one  point 
of  dividers  to  rest  against  rabbet  of  keel  and  other  point 
on  pattern  material,  and  without  changing  set  of  dividers 
he  marks  a  series  of  points  along  the  pattern  material, 
always  holding  one  point  of  dividers  against  rabbet  of 
keel  and  marking  point  on  material  with  other.  Frame 
numbers,  the  width  of  plank  at  each  frame,  and  setting 
of  dividers,  are  marked  on  pattern  material,  before  taking 
it  to  sawmill,  for  use  when  getting  out  the  plank.  Width 
of  planking  measure  referred  to  is  obtained  by  measuring 
distance  from  keel  rabbet  out  to  mark,  on  outside  of 
frames,  that  indicates  line  upper  edge  of  plank  will 
follow. 

Of  course  a  bevel  board,  on  which  is  marked  bevels 
that  lower  edge  of  plank  should  have,  must  accompany 
plank  spiling  batten.  The  bevels  for  lower  edge  of  plank 
are  obtained  by  placing  an  adjustable  bevel  along  frame 
and  adjusting  it  to  fit  properly  against  bevel  of  rabbet  in 
manner  shown  on  Fig.  89.  Planking  is  usually  marked  out 
in  the  sawmill,  and  if  bevels  are  indicated  by  degrees  at 
each  point  the  planks  can  be  sawed  to  shape  with  properly 
beveled  edges  by  using  an  adjustable  beveling  shipyard 
saw  or  one  of  the  modern  shipyard  adjustable  beveling 
heads. 

When  garboard  plank  is  shaped,  its  edges  are  finished 
by  hand  and  then  it  is  placed  in  the  steam-box,  well 
steamed  to  permit  it  to  be  bent  readily  in  place,  and  then 


^•rr^M  Pos^ 


hung  in  position,  bent  to  fit  snugly  against  the  frames  and 
secured  by  means  of  fastenings,  wedges,  jackscrews,  and 
planking  clamps.  All  of  the  wedges,  screws,  and  clamps 
are  allowed  to  remain  in  position  until  plank  is  "set"  and 
fastenings  are  driven. 

Garboard  strakes  should  have  vertical  scarphs  all  of 
which  should  be  some  distance,  longitudinally,  from  keel 
and  keelson  scarphs,  and  at  least  three  frame  spaces 
away  from  any  mast  step.  Scarphs  of  garboards  must 
be  edge-bolted  to  keel. 

Regarding  the  fastening  of  garboards.  Garboards  are 
fastened  with  at  least  one  QJHc/j-bolt,  or  bolt  riveted  on 
washer,  through  every  second  frame  timber  in  addition  to 
the  usual  double  treenail  fastenings  laid  down  in  building 
rules.  If  a  garboard  strake  is  over  4  inches  in  thickness 
it  must  be  edge-bolted  to  keel  in  every  second  frame  space, 
and  if  the  garboard  is  over  7  inches  in  thickness  a  second 
(garboard)  strake,  i  or  ij,-^  inch  less  thickness  than  first 
garboard,  must  be  used,  and  this  strake  must  be  edge- 
bolted  to  first  garboard  in  each  alternate  frame  space.  In 
large  wooden  vessels  a  third  and  sometimes  a  fourth  gar- 
board strake  is  used. 

In  all  cases  the  excess  thickness  over  and  above  that 
of  bottom  planking,  that  shows  along  edge  of  garboard 
strakes,  is  "dubbed  off"  even  with  bottom  planking  at 
stem  and  stern,  and  sometimes  for  the  whole  length  of 
garboard.  On  Figs.  202  and  212  the  garboard  is  "dubbed 
oflf"  for  its  full  length  and  on  Fig.  213  is  "dubbed  oflF"  at 
bow  and  stern  only.  Note  difiference  in  appearance  of 
edges  on  midship  section  views. 

10I-.     Sheer  Strake  Wales  and  Other  Planking 

The  plank  that  follows  sheer  line  of  a  vessel,  named 
the  sheer  plank,  is  usually  got  out  and  fitted  in  place  at 
same  time  that  garboard  is  being  fitted.  The  "spiling" 
is  taken  in  the  same  manner  as  for  garboard.  Bear  in 
mind  that,  as  covering  board  (on  deck)  extends  to  out- 
side of  planking,  the  upper  edge  of  sheer  plank  must  be 
beveled  to  same  crown  that  deck  frame  has. 

The  butts  of  sheer  plank  should  be  nibbed  scarphs 
edge-bolted  in  manner  shown  on  Fig.  43. 

On  Fig.  90  is  shown  a  vessel  framed  and  ready  for 
sheer  strake,  and  on  the  ground  alongside  of  vessel  is 
shown  some  of  the  sheer  strake  planks  scarphed  ready  to 


^-'f^'wi[»p^'i^r^si  w\  mm.  MHi  \'>i^rm'''''^'^^Wm'w^%Kw\m\m 


MM-»^ ^=i 


Fig.   86.     Trussed  Wood  Kaalson 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


97 


hang  in  place.  Sheer  planks  are  sawed  to  shape,  beveled, 
hung  and  fastened  in  manner  explained  in  garboard 
paragraph. 

The  wales,  as  you  will  note  by  referring  to  Figs.  28  and 
201  and  Table  3E  (page  22),  are  somewhat  thicker  than 
bottom  planking.  The  proper  vertical  extent  of  wales 
on  vessels  of  usual  proportion  of  depth  to  length  is  about 
one-third  of  vessel's  depth  of  hold,  but  when  a  vessel  is 
eight  or  more  depths  in  length  it  is  usual  to  increase  ver- 
tical depth  of  wales  to  about  two-fifths  of  depth  of  hold. 
Method  of  getting  out  and  fastening  wales  is  similar  to 
that  of  balance  of  planking. 

■  In  all  cases  the  outside  planking  of  a  vessel  must  be 
put  on  in  as  long  lengths  as  possible,  because  butts  tend 
to  weaken  longitudinal  strength  of  planking.  While  I  am 
referring  to  butts,  I  will  mention  some  safe  rules  to 
following  in  locating  butts. 

1st. — All  planking  butts  should  come  on  middle  of  a 
frame  and  should  be  cut  accurately  and  fastened  securely. 

2d. — Butts  of  adjoining  planks  should  not  be  nearer 
each  other,  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  than  three  frames, 
and  two  butts  should  not  come  on  the  same  frame  unless 
at  least  three  full  strakes  of  planking  are  between. 

It  is  advisable  when  a  vessel  is  planked  with  fir  or  yel- 
low pine  to  make  the  after  hoods  of  planks  along  the 
"tuck"  and  the  forward  hoods  of  bow  planks  that  will 
require  a  great  deal  of  twisting  to  get  them  in  place,  of 
white  oak.  Another  detail  of  importance  is  to  get  out 
all  planks  with  the  required  curvature,  and  thus  do  away 
with  any  necessity  of  having  to  "force"  the  planks  edge- 
ways in  order  to  make  them  fit  snug  against  the  adjacent 
plank.  "Edge-setting"  a  plank  is  a  detriment  and  will 
sometimes  result  in  the  plank  breaking  after  it  has  been 
fastened  in  place. 

loP.     Fastenings  of  Planking 

The  number,  sizes,  and  kinds  of  planking  fastenings 
to  use  are  given  on  Tables  3B,  3C,  3D,  3E,  3F  (pages 
20  to  23),  and  methods  of  fastening  are  shown  on  Figs. 
45  and  46. 


Three  kinds  of  fastenings  are  used  for  securing  out- 
side planking  of  a  vessel's  frame.  Wood  treenails,  through 
bolts  zvith  nuts  and  clinch  bolts  (bolts  whose  ends  can  be 
clinched  or  riveted  over  clinch  rings  or  washers). 

Number  of  planking  fastenings  should  always  be 
proportioned  to  width  of  strake  of  plank. 

Planks  above  11  inches  must  have  at  least  two  fas- 
tenings into  each  frame,  called  double  fastening.  Planks 
over  8  inches  and  up  to  11  inches  must  have  alternate 
dou])le  and  single  fastenings;  that  is,  have  two  fasten- 
ings in  one  frame  and  one  fastening  in  adjacent  one. 

Planks  under  8  inches  in  width  can  be  single  fas- 
tened; that  is,  have  one  fastening  driven  through  each 
frame. 

All  butts'  of  planks  must  be  fastened  with  at  least 
two  bolts  going  through  the  timber  on  which  butt  is  cut 
and  one  bolt  through  each  adjacent  timber.  These  butt 
bolts  must  be  riveted  or  have  nuts  set  up  on  washers. 

Treenails  used  for  fastening  planking  must  be  made 
of  straight-grained  well-seasoned  hardwood  (locust  or 
other  approved  kind)  and  must  be  driven  into  holes  that 
are  sufficiently  small  to  insure  the  treenail  having  a  max- 
imum of  holding  strength.  After  treenails  are  driven 
their  ends  must  be  cut  flush  with  outside  of  planking  and 
inside  of  frame  (or  ceiling)  and  then  wedged  across 
grain  with  hardwood  wedges. 

When  fastening  planking  it  is  very  necessary  to  give 
proper  consideration  to  the  relative  positions  of  fasten- 
ings of  outside  planking,  inside  ceiling  and  of  all  knee 
and  other  fastenings  that  must  pass  through  frame  tim- 
bers, because  if  this  is  not  done  many  fastenings  may 
pass  through  a  frame  so  close  to  each  other  that  wood 
of  frame  will  be  cut  away  and  both  strength  of  frame  and 
holding  power  of  fastenings  reduced. 

These  rules  should  govern  fastening  of  planking  and 
ceiling : 

(a)  Not  less  than  two-thirds  of  treenail  fastenings 
should  go  through  outside  planking,  frame  and  inside 
ceiling  or  clamps. 

(b)  At  least  one  fastening  in  each  frame  should  be. 
of  metal,  clinched  or  riveted  on  inside  of  frame  timber. 


Fig.  86a.     Tle-Bods  and  Stiaps 


98 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


In  a  number  of  present-day  wooden  vessels  defects  in 
planking  fastenings  are  apparent,  and  these  defects  are 
in  some  cases  so  serious  that  the  structural  strength  of 
vessel  is  much  below  requirements.  Some  of  the  more 
serious  defects  are  due  to 

(a)  The  use  of  augers  that  are  too  large  for  fas- 
tening diameter. 

(b)  The  use  of  an  improper  number  and  size  of 
fastenings  (usuaHy  too  few  and  too  small). 

(c)  The  use  of  unseasoned  planking  material  and 
improper  spacing  of  fastenings. 

(d)  Improper  location  of  butts  and  improper  butt 
fastening. 

(e)  The  omission  of  edge  fastenings,  especially 
through  garboards. 

(f)  Imperfect  wedging  of  treenail  fastenings. 

(g)  Failure  to  properly  clinch,  or  rivet,  metal  fas- 
tenings of  planking. 

The  augers  used  for  plank  fastenings  should  be  suf- 
ficiently smaller  than  diameter  of  fastening  to  insure  that 
fastening  will  require  exceptionally  hard  blows  to  drive 
them.  In  my  explanation  of  keel  fastenings,  I  mentioned 
proper  sizes  of  augers  to  use.  The  number  of  fastenings 
driven  into  each  frame  timber  should  not  be  less  than 
mentioned  in  this  paragraph  and  their  diameters  should 
never  be  less  than  given  in  table  below  : 

Planking  Fastening 


Thickness  of 
Planking 

l" 

2>4" 

Diameter  of 
Bolts 

/" 

■   Diameter  of 

Treenails 

I" 

3-3/2" 

M" 

i%" 

4-4/2" 

%" 

^Va" 

5-5/2" 

6"  or  over 

15/16" 
i" 

1/2" 

All  planking  material  should  be  properly  seasoned, 
because  unless  it  is  the  natural  shrinkage  of  wood  during 
and  aften  construction  will  cause  seams  to  open,  caulk- 
ing to  loosen,  and  thus  leaks  will  develop  and  strength 
of  vessel  be  greatly  reduced.  It  is  folly  to  use  "green" 
planking  material.  While  air-drying  is  best,  it  is  better 
to  resort  to  smoke  or  steam-drying  than  to  use  unseasoned 
material  and  in  fact  if  properly  and  carefully  done  smoke 


/yg  sr 


3^ 


tf 


^fCZ) 


^Jlmmj4^^mmm\  m^^ 


Fig.   87.     TrnsBed   Steel  Keelson 


or  Steam-drying  does  not  detract  from  strength  and  dura- 
bility of  planking  material. 

Butts  should  always  be  located  according  to  rules 
mentioned  in  this  chapter.  Edge  fastenings  should  always 
be  used  along  garboards,  at  butts  of  sheer  and  along 
sheer  strake. 

Another  method  of  fastening  planking  of  vessels  is 
when  the  plank  is  being  put  in  place  to  use  a  sufficient 
number  of  spikes,  "dump  bolts,"  and  treenails,  to  prop- 
erly hold  the  planks  in  place  and  after  the  ceiling  has 
been  wrought  to,  complete  the  fastening  by  putting  in  the 
balance  of  treenails  and  all  the  through  bolts.  The  first 
fastenings,  to  hold  planks  in  place,  go  through  planking 
and  into  frame  timbers,  and  the  second  fastenings  through 
planking,  frame  timbers  and  ceiling.  And  still  another, 
older  method  is  to  use  a  minimum  number  of  spikes  and 
some  temporary  fastenings  (bolts  with  nuts)  for  the  first 
fastenings,  and  when  the  ceiling  is  being  put  in  place  to 
withdraw  the  temporary  fastenings,  continue  the  boring 
of  these  fastenings  holes  through  ceiling,  and  then  put 
in  the  permanent  planking  fastenings  through  planking, 
frame  timbers  and  ceiling. 

The  principal  things  to  bear  in  mind  are : 

(a)  To  consider  the  fastenings  of  ceiling  and  plank- 
ing as  being  one  and  to  so  space  the  fastenings  of  both 
planking  and  ceiling  that  the  maximum  number  will  serve 
the  double  purpose  of  securing  both  planking  and  ceiling 
to  the  frame  timbers.  , 

(b)  To  so  space  all  fastenings  that  there  will  be  a 
minimum  number  of  holes  bored  through  the  frame  tim- 
bers. If  the  frame  timbers  are  weakened  too  much  by 
having  an  excessive  number  of  fastening  holes  bored 
through  them,  the  frames  will  not  properly  hold  the  fas- 
tenings and  are  also  liable  to  break  under  the  strains  that 
are  put  on  them  when  a  vessel  works  in  a  sea. 

Space  fastenings  properly,  bore  the  proper  sized  holes 
for  every  fastening,  drive  and  rivet  or  wedge  each  fasten- 
ing properly,  and  use  the  proper  number  of  fastenings 
and  the  vessel  will  have  the  maximum  amount  of  strength. 
Figs.  46,  47  give  illustrations  of  proper  spacing  methods 
for  plank  fastenings. 

Continuing  Planking 

After  garboards  and  sheer  strake  are  fastened  the 
balance  of  planking  is  got  out,  and  as  there  is  now  an 
upper  and  a  lower  strake  of  planking  in  position  (gar- 
board  and  sheer)  planking  can  proceed  from  sheer  strake 
down  and  from  garboard  strake  up. 

All  planks  are  "spiled"  in  manner  that  garboard  is, 
and  as  each  plank  is  fitted  in  place  it  should  be  tightly 
wedged  against  the  next  plank  before  any  fastening  is 
driven.  Of  course  all  seams  of  planking  must  be  per- 
fectly tight  inside,  and  open,  for  caulking,  on  outside, 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  have  upper  edge  of  each 
plank  follow  the  line  laid  out  for  it. 

The  last  strake  of  planking  to  put  in  place  is  the 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


99 


shutter  strake,  so  called  because  it  "shuts"  or  closes  the 
last  space  that  planking  has  to  fill.  On  Fig.  91  the 
shutter  strake  opening  is  clearly  shown. 

After  planking  is  completed  and  fastenings  all  secured, 
planking  is  ready  for  roughing  off  caulking  and  smooth- 
ing, but  this  work  should  be  delayed  until  the  last  moment 
in  order  to  give  planking  time  to  properly  dry  out. 

lol^.  Double  Planking  (Fore  and  Aft) 
The  foregoing  explanation  refers  to  single  planking 
put  on  in  the  usual  manner.  There  are,  however,  two 
other  accepted  planking  methods  that  I  will  now  explain. 
The  first  of  these  methods  is  the  double  fore-and-aft 
method  of  planking.  In  this  method  all  planks  run  from 
stem  to  stern  and  are  shaped  in  exactly  the  manner  that 
the  usual  single  thick  planking  is ;  but  in  place  of  plank- 
ing being  put  on  in  one  thickness  it  is  divided  into  two, 
the  combined  thickness  of  the  two  being  slightly  less  than 
the  normal  thickness  of  single  planking.  Thus  if  the  sin- 
gle planking  of  a  vessel  is  4  inches,  for  a  double-planked 
vessel  the  inner,  or  plank  nearest  to  frame,  would  be 
i^  or  ij-^  inches  and  the  outer  planking  would  be  2 
inches. 

A  vessel  is  double-planked  in  this  manner: 
The  garboard  and  sheer  strakes  are  got  out  of  single 
thickness  material  in  the  usual  manner,  except  that  the 
upper  edge  of  garboard  and  lower  edge  of  sheer  is  rab- 
beted to  a  depth  that  leaves  standing  part  along  edge  of 
same  thickness  as  inner  planking  and  about  2  inches  in 
width.  These  planks  are  then  fastened  in  place  and 
spiling  taken  for  inner  planking.  The  inner  planking  is 
got  out  and  fastened  to  frames  with  short  fastenings  suf- 
ficient in  number  and  length  to  hold  planks  securely  in 
place. 

The  seams  of  inner  planking  are  next  caulked,  sur- 
face of  planking  smoothed  and  then  outer  planks  are 
got  out  in  such  a  manner  that  their  seams  will  run  along 
middle  fore-and-aft  lines  of  all  inner  planks.     Of  course 


t^W\ 


at  garboard  and  sheer  the  outer  plank  fits  into  rabbet 
already  cut.  The  fastenings  of  outer  planking  go  through 
both  outer  and  inner  planks  and  are  secured  in  the  usual 
manner.  It  is  necessary  to  thoroughly  paint  or  fill  outer 
surface  of  inner  planks  and  inner  surface  of  outer  planks 
before  they  are  fastened.  Bitumastic  paint  or  one  of 
the  many  wood  preservations  are  used  for  this.  After 
outer  planking  is  in  place,  seams  are  caulked  and  plank- 
ing smoothed  in  the  usual  manner.  It  is  evident  that, 
as  no  seams  go  directly  through  from  outside'  to  inside 
of  a  plank,  the  double  planking  offers  greater  resistance 
to  longitudinal  strains  than  single  planking,  but  it  is  more 
expensive  to  lay  and  for  this  reason  is  not  very  often 
used. 

On  Fig.  91a  I  show  a  sketch  of  a  midship  section  out- 
line and  portion  of  profile  with  details  of  double  plank- 
ing clearly  shown. 

iol°.     Double  Diagonal  and  Single  Fore-and-Aft 
Planking 

This  method  of  planking  calls  for  the  laying  of  two 
thin  inner  layers  of  planking  diagonally  from  sheer  to 
keel  and  one  thick  outer  layer  of  planking  fore-and-aft. 

For  this  method  of  planking,  filling  timbers  must  be 
added  to  frame  to  fill  space  between  frame  timbers  along 
sheer  and  at  keel.  These  additions  are  necessary  because 
ends  of  diagonal  planks  terminate  along  keel  and  sheer, 
and  there  must  be  solid  wood  at  these  places  to  receive 
and  hold  the  fastenings. 

The  filling  timbers  that  fill  space  between  frame  tim- 
bers need  not  extend  more  than  a  foot  or  so  out  from 
keel,  or  down  from  sheer. 

The  two  inner  layers  of  planking  are  made  of  rela- 
tively thin  material,  the  total  thickness  of  the  two  being 
slightly  more  than  one-third  thickness  required  for  single 
thick  planking.  Thus  if  single  thickness  of  planking 
laid  planking  should  be  about  34-inch.  The  outer  fore- 
and-aft  planking  thickness  should  be  somewhat  less  than 


n^0\    h/rtkAl    \4f\W 


OETAIL  OF  IRON  STRAPPINa- 

Fig.   88 


*»■  -Suisai^-t-^ji . 


100 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


one-half  the  total  thickness  of  planking  required  for  sin- 
gle thick  planking  method,  or  about  i}i  inches  thick  if  4 
inches  is  thickness  of  single  planking. 

When  planking  a  vessel  in  this  manner  the  diagonal 
planking  is  got  out  in  planks  about  8  or  9  inches  wide 
and  the  first  layer  of  diagonal  planking  is  laid  diagonally 
across  frames,  beginning  at  keel  and  extending  to  sheer 
at  an  inclination  of  about  45°.  The  planks  are  laid  with 
tight  seams  and  fastened  with  nails  to  every  frame  they 
cross.  Where  a  butt  comes  an  additional  filling  piece  is 
secured  between  the  frames  and  to  this  filling  piece  and 
its  adjacent  frame  the  butt  end  of  plank  is  secured. 
When  the  whole  frame  is  covered  with  .one  layer  of  the 
diagonal  planking  the  planks  are  smoothed,  seams  caulked 
and  surface  painted. 

The  second  layer  is  now  put  on  diagonally  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  thus  crossing  inner  layer  at  right  angles. 
Outer  diagonal  layer  of  planking  fastenings  goes  through 
inner  layer  into  frames,  and  after  this  layer  of  planking 
is  put  on  its  seams  are  caulked  and  surface  smoothed. 


The  outer  fore-and-aft  planking  is  got  out  and  put 
on  in  exactly  the  manner  that  single  thick  planking  is, 
except  that  the  fastenings  of  outer  planking  go  through 
both  diagonal  plankings  into  frames.  After  outer  fore- 
and-aft  planking  is  laid,  the  three  thicknesses  of  plank- 
ing are  fastened  together  between  frame  timbers  by 
means  of  short  nails  driven  from  inside  into  outer  fore- 
and-aft  planks  or  by  means  of  nails  driven  from  outside 
through  the  three  thicknesses  of  planks  and  clinched; 
thus  bringing  all  planks  in  close  contact  and  adding 
strength  to  the  planking  structure.  Of  course  the  seams 
of  outer  planking  are  caulked  and  planking  smoothed  and 
finished  in  usual  manner. 

All  fastenings  of  double  and  triple  planking  should  be 
of  metal  properly  riveted,  or  clinched. 

On  Fig.  91b  I  show  details  of  this  method  of  plank- 
ing. As  regards  strength  of  construction  the  combined 
diagonal  and  fore-and-aft  method  of  planking  possesses 
great  strength,  but  it  is  costly  to  plank  a  vessel  in  this 
manner. 


Fig.  90.     Flamed  Ready  For  Sheei 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


lOI 


lom.     Ceiling — Explanatory 

During  the  time  a  vessel  is  being  planked  ceiling 
material  can  be  got  ready  and  when  a  sufficient  portion 
of  bottom  and  topside  planking  is  fastened  in  place  work- 
men can  begin  to  lay  and  fasten  ceiling. 

The  ceiling  in  a  wooden  vessel  is  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  adding  to  structural  strength  and  preventing  dirt 
getting  between  frame  timbers,  it  therefore  is  essential 
that  ceiling  be  of  proper  strength,  that  it  be  properly 
laid  and  securely  fastened,  and  that  no  openings  be  left 
between  the  seams  of  ceiling  planks. 

Ceiling  is  usually  laid  in  planks  that  run  fore-and-aft, 
the  planks  being  tightly  fitted  against  each  other  and 
fastened  to  every  frame. 

You  will  note  by  referring  to  cross-section  drawings 
Figs.  202  and  212  that  ceiling  planks  are  thicker  along 
bilges  than  along  bottom  and  sides.  This  is  usual  and 
proper,  because  it  is  along  the  bilges  that  frames  are 
weakest  and  strains  are  greatest.  On  Tables  in  Chapter 
III,  I  give  proper  thickness  of  ceiling  to  use  at  bottom, 
along  side,  and  at  turn  of  bilge. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  make  templates  or  mark  a 
ceiling  width  scale  on  inside  of  frames,  because  ceiling 
planks  are  usually  got  out  as  near  straight  and  one  width 
from  end  to  end  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them.  On  Fig. 
92  is  shown  the  first  planks  of  bottom  ceiling  in  place. 

In  a  modern  shipyard  sawmill  ceiling  planks  can  be 
beveled  and  got  ready  to  fit  in  place  by  using  an  adjust- 
able head  beveling  machine. 

iom\    Laying  Ceiling 

The  first  planks  of  ceiling  laid  are  those  which  butt 
against  keelsons  unless  vessel  is  to  have  a  limber  strake, 


in  which  case  the  first  strake  of  ceiling  is  laid  the  width 
of  limber  strake  out  from  keelson.  On  Fig.  212  cross- 
section  limber  strake  is  clearly  shown  next  to  keelson, 
and  on  Fig.  201  cross-section  you  will  note  that  there  is 
no  limber  strake. 

lom-.     Explaining  the  Reason* Why  a  Limber 
Passage  is  Necessary 

Water  will  find  its  way  into  the  holds  of  all  vessels 
and  it  is  necessary  that  pumps  be  installed  for  its  re- 
moval. These  pumps  have  suctions  led  to  lowest  point 
in  each  hold  or  compartment,  and  open  passageways 
through  which  the  water  can  freely  pass  to  pump  suc- 
tion are  always  arranged.  In  wooden  vessels  these 
passageways  consist  of  openings  cut  across  outside  of 
frame  timbers  (these  openings  are  clearly  shown  on  Fig. 
212)  and  as  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  method  of 
cleaning  out  the  openings,  should  dirt  fill  them,  it  is 
usual  to  either  reeve  a  chain  through  all  openings  from 
bow  to  stern,  leaving  the  ends  in  a  convenient  place  for 
crew  to  take  hold  of  them,  haul  chain  backhand  forth 
and  thus  clear  limber  openings  of  obstructions,  or  to 
leave  removable  boards  over  the  frames  and  thus  by 
removing  a  board  crew  can  reach  any  obstruction  in 
passage  and  clear  it  away.  The  best  and  most  satisfac- 
tory method  is  to  use  both  the  chain  and  loose  board. 

The  passage  cut  along  outside  of  frame  timbers  is 
named  the  limber;  the  chain  that  is  run  through  passage 
is  named  a  limber  chain,  and  the  boards  placed  over  open- 
ing left  between  ceiling  and  keelson  are  named  limber 
boards. 

The  limbers  are  carefully  cut  before  planking  is  put 
on,  and  limber  chain  is  put  in  position  before  the  strake 


Fig.  91.     A  255-Foot  AnxUlary  Schooner,   From  Daslgns  by  Tuns,  Lemolne  k  Crane.     Planked  Beady  For  Shutter 


102 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Frame  timbers^ 


yy 


Fig.  91.     Double  Planking 

of  planking  that  covers  limber  is  fastened  in  place.  Of 
course  limber  chain  must  be  much  smaller  than  limber, 
otherwise  it  would  stop  flow  of  water.  Dimensions  of 
limbers  should  not  be  less  than  2^  inches  wide  by  ij4 
inches  deep  and  should  be  cut  clear  of  a  plank  seam. 

lom^.    Butts  and  Fastening  of  Ceiling 

Ceiling  planks,  especially  along  the  bilges,  should  be 
of  greatest  possible  length  and  all  scarphs  should  be 
either  hooked,  nibbed,  or  locked.  When  cutting  scarphs 
of  ceiling  planks  consideration  must  be  given  to  location 
of  butts  of  outer  planks,  and  all  ceiling  scarphs  must  be 
located  some  distance  away  from  planking  butts. 

Each  strake  of  ceiling  must  be  fastened  to  each 
frame  with  at  least  two  (metal)  fastenings  in  addition 
to  the  through  planking  treenail  fastenings  that  have  to 
be  driven  through  outside  planking,  frame  and  ceiling. 

The  bilge  ceiling  should  first  be  fastened  in  place 
with  a  sufficient  number  of  fastenings,  driven  into  frames 
only,  to  hold  it  in  position,  and  then  through  each  frame 
and  each  bilge  ceiling  plank  there  should  be  driven  from 
outside,  one  or  two  (metal)  fastenings,  and  the  inside 
ends  of  these  fastenings  must  be  riveted  over  clinch 
rings. 

In  addition  to  this  all  bilge  ceiling  and  a  greater  por- 
tion of  bottom  and  side  ceiling  must  be  edge-bolted 
between  frame  timbers.  On  Fig.  212  cross-section  view 
these  edge-bolts,  or  drifts,  are  clearly  marked. 

It  is  very  essential   that  ceiling  be  laid  with  tight 


seams  and  that  the  whole  mass  of  ceiling  planks  be 
secured  together  and  to  framing  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  will  offer  greatest  possible  resistance  to  both  longi- 
tudinal and  transverse  strains.  On  Fig.  43b  the  scarph 
of  a  strake  of  bilge  ceiling  can  be  seen  on  right-hand 
side,  and  on  left-hand  side  the  ends  of  fastenings  are 
clearly  discernible.  A  central  steel  keelson  is  also  very 
clearly  seen  in  this  illustration. 

I  cm*.    Air  Course  and  Salt  Stops 

If  you  will  refer  to  Figs.  202  and  212  cross-section 
views,  you  will  notice  an  open  space  left  between  strakes 
of  ceiling  immediately  below  the  clamps,  and  you  will 
also  see  on  left-hand  side  of  frame  timber  immediately 
above  opening  in  ceiling  a  piece  of  wood  that  extends 
from  inside  of  planking  to  outside  of  ceiling  planks. 
The  opening  through  ceiling  is  named  an  air  course  and 
is  placed  there  to  allow  air  to  freely  circulate  around 
the  spaces  between  frames.  This  air  course  is  not  a 
clear  opening  from  bow  to  stern,  but  consists  of  a  series 
of  short  openings  at  stated  intervals.  In  other  words, 
portions  of  the  space  are  filled  in  and  other  portions 
left  open.  Air  courses  are  usually  between  3  and  4 
inches  wide  and  their  length  is  equal  to  the  open  space 
between  frame  timbers.  The  piece  of  wood  that  extends 
across  frame  is  named  a  salt  stop. 

The  salt  stop  consists  of  short  pieces  of  wood  wide 
enough  to  reach  from  inside  of  planking  to  outside  of 
ceiling  and  long  enough  to  fill  the  open  spaces  between 
frame  timbers.     The  purpose  for  which  they  are  placed 


Oc/r£fi  PL^fsJK 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


103 


Fig.  92.      Ceiling  Commenced 

there  is  to  hold  the  salt  placed  between  frame  timbers 
when  a  vessel  is  salted. 

iom°.    Salting 

Salting  a  vessel  consists  in  filling  all  open  spaces 
between  frame  timbers,  from  keel  salt  stops,  with 
coarse  rock  salt.  Salt  is  an  excellent  wood  preservative, 
especially  in  damp  places  and  where  air  cannot  freely 
circulate,  and  it  has  been  found  that  if  all  open  spaces 
between  the  frame  timbers  of  a  vessel  be  filled  with  salt, 
the  timbers  will  resist  decay  longer  than  unsalted  tim- 
bers will.  For  this  reason  all  insurance  classification 
societies  will  add  a  named  period  (usually  one  or  two 
years)  to  a  vessel's  classification  if  vessel  is  salted  while 
on  the  stocks  or  building  ways.  When  a  vessel  is  to  be 
salted,  it  is  necessary  to  enclose  the  space  occupied  by 
limbers  and  chains,  otherwise  the  salt  will  fill  these 
spaces  and  clog  the  openings. 

It  is  advisable  to  salt  a  vessel. 

lom".     Double  and  Triple  Ceiling 

While  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  use  a  single  thickness 
of  ceiling  put  on  in  manner  explained,  some  of  the  more 
advanced  builders  are  beginning  to  recognize  the  advan- 
tages of  using  double  fore-and-aft  ceiling,  or  triple  (two 
diagonal  and  one  fore-and-aft)  diagonal  and  fore-and- 
aft  ceiling. 

By  the  use  of  double  ceiling  the  same  strength  of 
construction  can  be  obtained  by  using  ceiling  having  a 
total  thickness  of  about  seven-eighths  of  single  ceiling 
thickness,  and  nearly  all  edge  fastenings  can  be  dis- 
pensed with.  Of  course  first  layer  of  ceiling  planks 
must  be  fastened  independently,  and  fastenings  of  second 
layer  must  be  spaced  to  clear  inner  ceiling  fastenings. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  fastenings  into  frame  timbers 
additional  short  fastenings  should  be  driven  along  seams 


of  planks  to  secure  edges  of  second  layer  of  ceiling  to 
layer  below. 

Triple  ceiling  without  doubt  has  greater  strength  per 
unit  of  material  than  either  single  or  double,  and  for 
this  reason  the  total  thickness  of  triple  ceiling  need  not 
be  more  than  three-quarters  or  five-eighths  of  single  ceil- 
ing thickness.  ^ 

When  triple  ceiling  is  used  fiUing  timbers  must  be 
fitted  to  fill  open  spaces  between  frame  timbers  along 
keelson,  along  sheer,  and  wherever  a  butt  of  diagonal 
laid  ceiling  will  come. 

The  first  diagonal  layer  of  ceiling  crosses  frame  tim- 
bers at  an  inclination  of  about  45°  and  is  fastened  to 
frames  with  sufficient  fastenings  to  firmly  hold  the 
planks  in  position.  The  second  diagonal  layer  of  ceiling 
crosses  the  first  at  right  angles  and  is  fastened  securely 
to  first  layer  and  to  frames.  The  third,  fore-and-aft, 
layer  is  fitted  and  fastened  in  the  manner  explained  for 
single  thick  ceiling,  and  as  all  of  its  fastenings  go  through 
the  first  and  second  diagonal  layers  the  whole  ceiling 
structure  becomes  one  solid  mass  of  wood  that  offers 
great  resistance  to  both  longitudinal  and  transverse 
strains. 

When  triple  ceiling  is  used  it  is  not  necessary  to 
increase  thickness  of  bilge  ceiling. 

When  double  ceiling  is  used  it  is  very  necessary  to 
thoroughly  coat  the  upper  surface  of  first  layer  of  ceil- 
ing and  under  surface  of  second  layer  with  a  good  wood 
preservative  before  the  second  layer  is  fastened  in  place. 
With  the  triple  layer  it  is  necessary  to  coat  surfaces  of 
the  three  layers  of  planks,  the  object  being  to  prevent 
decay  through  moisture  and  stagnant  air  getting  into 
pores  of  wood. 

Moisture,  stagnant  air  and  dirt  are  the  three  prime 
causes  of  decay  in  wood. 


Fig.  93.     Canllclng  Bottom  Planking 


I04 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  94.     Breast  Hook 


lom^.     Clamps  and  Shelf  Pieces 

The  clamps,  auxiliary  clamps,  and  shelf  and  lock 
shelf,  is  an  assemblage  of  longitudinal  timbers  firmly 
fastened  to  frame  timbers,  and  together,  their  use  being 
to  support  deck  beams  and  strengthen  the  hull  along  each 
deck. 

On  Figs.  20I,  202,  212  cross-section  drawings,  differ- 
ent methods  of  assembling  the  pieces  are  clearly  shown, 
and  on  Tables  in  Chapter  III  is  given  proper  dimensions 
of  materials  to  use  for  these  parts. 

Clamps  material  is  usually  got  out  at  the  time  ceiling 
material  is,  and  in  the  same  manner. 

Clamp  and  shelf  material  should  be  of  the  greatest 
possible  length  and  all  scarphs  must  be  either  locked, 
hooked,  or  keyed  and  edge-bolted,  the  length  of  each 
scarph  being  not  less  than  six  times  the  width  of  material. 
Clamps  must  be  fastened  to  each  frame  timber  they  cross 
with  not  less  than  two  through  bolts  riveted  over  clinch 
rings. 

The  forward  end  of  each  clamp  usually  terminates 
at  apron,  and  clamps  at  opposite  sides  of  vessel  are  con- 
nected together  by  means  of  knees  that  are  fitted  against 
apron  and  between  the  clamps.  These  knees,  called 
breast-hooks,  are  secured  to  apron  and  also  to  clamps 
and  frame  timbers.  On  Fig.  94  is  shown  an  excellent 
method  of  securing  forward  ends  of  clamps  by  means 
of  wood  and  steel  breast-hook. 

The  after  ends  of  all  clamps  that  do  not  merge  into 
the  framing  of  an  elliptical  stern  should  also  be  securely 
kneed  to  transom  or  stern  framing.  In  addition  to  the 
clamp  breast-hooks  at  stem  there  must  also  be  at  least 
one  hook  in  the  space  between  each  deck  and  also  at  the 
forward  termination  of  all  pointers. 


lom*.     Pointers 

These  are  built-up  assemblages  of  timber  located  at 
bow  and  stern.  The  bow  pointers  begin  at  after  end  of 
apron  and  stemson,  near  to  forefoot,  and  run  aft  and 
upwards  in  a  diagonal  direction  until  they  reach  a  tier  of 
deck  beams.  On  Fig.  201  interior  profile  view,  two  bow 
and  three  stern  pointers  are  clearly  shown. 

At  the  stern  the  pointers  begin  at  deadwood  at  vary- 
ing distances  from  keelson  and  extend  upwards  and  for- 
ward. 

Pointers  are  usually  constructed  of  several  pieces  of 
oak,  or  yellow  pine,  steam-bent  to  shape  and  fitted  on 
top  of  each  other,  thus  forming  a  solid  laminated  struc- 
ture of  great  strength.  The  painters  lay  on  ceiling,  are 
through  bolted  to  ceiling  frame  timbers  and  planking, 
and  should  extend  upwards  to  most  convenient  tier  of 
beams  and  be  kneed  to  clamp  of  that  tier. 

Pointers  are  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  for- 
ward and  after  portions  of  vessel  against  a  tendency  to 
"hog." 

In  general  pointers  should  be  not  over  6  feet  apart 
at  points  of  termination  at  bow  or  stern,  should  be  fitted 
at  an  inclination  of  about  45°,  and  should  be  fastened  to 
every  frame  timber  they  cross  with  two  bolts.  The 
proper  dimensions  of  pointers  is  given  on  Tables  in  Chap- 
ter III. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  pointers  of  steel  channels, 
or  of  angles  and  plates  riveted  together,  are  preferable 
to  the  wood  ones  because  greater  strength  can  be  obtained 
from  a  given  weight  of  material. 

ion.     Deck  Framing 

Deck  beams  can  be  sawed  to  shape  and  finished  in  the 
sawmill  of  a  modern  shipyard  during  the  time  that  ves- 
sel's frame  is  being  erected  and  planking  is  being  put  on. 

The  deck  framing  of  a  vessel  consists  of  transverse 
beams  and  half-beams,  carlins,  lodge  and  hanging  knees, 


Fig.   95.     view  of  Interior  Showing  Knees 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


105 


Fig.  95a.     Large  Knees  Beady  For  Use 

hatch  coamings  and  hatch  framing;  and  in  a  vessel  hav- 
ing more  than  one  deck  there  must  be  a  properly  framed 
and  fastened  set  of  deck  beams  installed  at  every  deck 
position.  Details  of  framing  of  the  various  decks  are 
always  shown  on  longitudinal  profile,  and  transverse  con- 
struction plans  somewhat  in  the  manner  they  are  shown 
on  Fig.  20I  plans. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  in  some  vessels  the  lower 
tier  of  beams  (called  hold  beams)  are  merely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adding  transverse  strength  and  do  not  carry  deck 
planking. 

The  sided  and  moulded  dimensions  of  deck  beams 
vary  with  width  of  vessel  and  not  with  tonnage;  and  the 
spacing  of  deck  beams  should  always  correspond  with 
spacing  of  frames.  In  other  words,  the  ends  of  each 
deck's  beams  should  bear  against  a  frame  timber  and 
rest  upon  clamp  and  shelf  pieces  in  one  of  the  ways 
illustrated  on  construction  drawings  of  Figs.  201,  202, 
212.  On  Fig.  28  and  Fig.  27  are  shown  details  of  hatch 
and  mast  partner  construction  with  parts  marked  for 
identification. 

In  nearly  all  vessels  it  is  necessary  to  support  the 
deck  beams  along  the  center  line  of  vessel.  This  sup- 
porting is  done  by  erecting  tiers  of  stanchions,  at  stated 
intervals,  and  fastening  their  ends  securely. 


The  lower  tier  of  stanchions  have  their  lower  ends 
securely  fastened  to  keelson  and  their  upper  ends  to 
lower  tier  of  beams.  The  next  tier  of  beams  are  set  up 
immediately  over  the  lower  tier  ones  and  have  their  lower 
ends  secured  to  deck  and  deck  beam  they  rest  on,  and 
their  upper  ends  secured  to  beams  of  deck  above.  Thus 
each  succeeding  stanchion  is  placed  immediately  above 
one  below,  with  the  result  that  the  greatest  possible  sup- 
port along  the  longitudinal  center  line  is  given  to  the 
whole  deck  structure. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  deck  beams  be  properly 
crowned  on  their  upper  surface.  The  amount  of  crown 
is  specified  by  the  designer  and  is  usually  much  less  for 
lower  deck  beams  than  for  the  upper  or  exposed  deck 
ones. 

If  you  will  turn  to  Fig.  201  you  will  note  that  the 
ends  of  both  tiers  of  deck  beams  are  securely  kneed  to 
ceiling  and  framing.  This  is  an  excellent  method  of 
fastening  deck  beams,  especially  if  the  vessel  is  a  large 
one.  Fig.  95  is  an  exceptionally  clear  photograph  of 
hanging  deck  knees  in  a  vessel  built  from  plans  Fig.  201, 
and  on  Fig.  95a  is  shown  some  natural  or  root  knees 
sawed  to  shape. 

On  Fig.  212  cross-section  view  is  shown  another 
method  of  securing  ends  of  deck  beams.  Here  there  are 
two  shelves  and  two  auxiliary  clamps  to  take  the  place 
of  the  hanging  knees,  and  as  one  of  the  shelves  is  what 
is  termed  a  lock  shelf,  and  the  whole  structure  of  shelves, 
clamps  and  beam  is  thoroughy  well  secured  to  each  other 


FiK.   96.     View  of  Main  Deck,   No.   1  Hatch 
From  Forward  House  Looking  Aft 


io6 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


Tig.  97.     The  Pneumatic  Hammer  Driving  Deck  Spikes  in  Holes  Which 

Have  Been  Drilled  and  Countersunk  at  the  Same  Operation  by 

Another  Little  David.     These  Tools  Make  Short  Work 

of  Numerous  Tasks 

and  to  frame  timbers,  the  structure  is  amply  strong  to 
withstand  strains  that  tend  to  separate  the  pieces. 
Now  a  few  words  explaining  a  lock  shelf. 

icn^    Lock  Shelf 

A  lock  shelf  is  a  shelf  to  which  the  beam  is  locked  by 
means  of  a  key  piece,  or  coak,  or  projection  that  fits  into 
a  corresponding  depression  in  underside  of  beam.  If 
you  will  look  carefully  at  the  Fig.  212  cross-section  you 
will  notice  (dotted)  end  of  lock  piece  projecting  above 
upper  surface  of  shelf  and  let  into  underside  of  beam. 
In  my  opinion  hanging  knees  are  stronger  and  preferable 
to  the  lock  shelf  and  added  shelf  and  clamp  timbers. 

Bear  in  mind  that  lock  piece  can  be  used  with  advan- 
tage when  hanging  knees  are  used. 

Dimensions  and  number  of  hanging  knees  required 
for  vessels  of  various  sizes  are  given  on  Table  VHP  in 
Chapter.  VIII. 

I  have  mentioned  lodge  knees,  so  I  will  next  explain 
why  they  are  used. 

lon^.    Lodge  Knees 

Lodge  knees  are  used  to  prevent  the  deck  beams  turn- 
ing on  their  sides,  and  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening 
deck  framing,  near  sides  of  vessel,  against  fore-and-aft 
movement. 

On  Fig.  28  lodge  knees  are  shown  in  position,  and  on 
deck  framing  of  Figs.  201,  206,  207  lodge  knees  can  be 
seen  in  position. 

ion''.     Knee  F.\stenings 

Knees  of  all  kinds  should  be  through  fastened  with 
bolts  passing  through  knee,  clamps,  frame,  and  planking, 
and  through  knee  deck  beam,  shelf,  the  fastenings  being 
driven  at  inclinations  that  will  enable  the  knee  to  resist 
strain  from  all  directions.  On  Figs.  201,  202,  212  cross- 
section  views  lines  of  direction  are  clearly  shown  by 
dotted  line  that  indicate  fastenings. 


lOn*.     Hatch  Framing 

In  every  vessel  that  carries  cargo  there  must  be  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  openings  through  the  decks  to  allow 
the  cargo  to  be  properly  and  quickly  loaded  and  unloaded, 
each  of  the  openings  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  permit 
the  most  bulky  piece  of  cargo  to  pas's  through  it,  and  all 
of  the  openings  must  be  arranged  to  enable  the  crew  to 
make  them  absolutely  watertight  when  vessel  is  at  sea.' 

The  openings  through  decks  are  named  hatchways 
and  it  is  usual  to  locate  the  hatchways  in  most  convenient 
positions  along  upper  deck  and  then  to  have  the  hatch 
openings  through  lower  decks  come  immediately  under 
the  upper  deck  openings.  By  doing  this  it  is  possible  to 
load  or  unload  cargo  on  any  deck  or  in  hold  with  a  mini- 
mum of  labor.  The  dimensions  of  hatch  openings  having 
been  determined  it  is  necessary  to  properly  frame  around 
the  openings,  to  make  removable  hatch  covers  to  close 
the  openings,  and  to  have  watertight  paulins  with  neces- 
sary hatch  battens  with  wedges  fitted  over  the  hatch  cov- 
ers and  arranged  to  fasten  tightly  around  the  hatch 
coamings. 

Fig.  27  is  a  detailed  drawing  of  the  framing  of  a 
hatch  and  each  part  is  identified  by  name.    On  the  dra\V- 


-Lo^Kr-ikchBciims.>[ 

Fig.   98 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


107 


Fig.   99.     The  Caulking  Tool  Can  Be  Held  in  Any  Position  and  Is  Able  to 

Deliver  1,500   Taps  a  Minute.    The  Oakum  Is  Fed  Mechanically,   so 

That  The  Work  of  "Horsing  It  In"   Can  Be  Done  Eapidly  and 

Thoroughly,    No    Matter    Where    the    Seam    Is    Located 

ing  referred  to  you  will  notice  that  the  fore-and-aft  deck 
pieces  of  hatch  coaming  stop  at  ends  of  opening  and  that 
the  cross  pieces  are  fitted  into  them.  This  is  the  proper 
method  to  use  for  a  small  sailing  vessel,  but  in  large  ves- 
sels, especially  those  having  a  central  superstructure  or 


house,  it  is  better  to  allow  the  upper  deck  fore-and-aft 
timbers  of  hatch  coamings  to  extend  in  one  piece  from 
forward  to  aft  and  to  let  each  cross  piece  into  these  fore- 
and-aft  timbers.  Then  if  supporting  stanchions  are  placed 
directly  under  these  fore-and-aft  timbers,  the  maximum 
strength,  which  will,  of  course,  come  directly  over  the 
under  deck  fore-and-aft  around, the  hatch  openings,  is 
obtained  without  an  unnecessary  amount  of  material 
being  used. 

With  the  construction  shown  on  Fig.  27  there  is  a 
slight  weakening  of  structure  around  hatch  openings,  but 
with  the  continuous  fore-and-aft  pieces  of  coaming  sup- 
ported with  stanchions  there  is  no  weakening.  Of  course, 
vyhen  the  continuous  fore-and-aft  pieces  are  used,  the 
deck  is  practically  divided  longitudinally  into  three,  and 
therefore  there  must  be  a  sufficient  number  of  openings 
cut  in  longitudinal  timbers,  between  deck  and  lower  edge 
of  timbers,  to  allow  water  to  pass  freely  across  the  deck 
and  flow  into  water  ways. 

On  Fig.  96  is  shown  main  deck  hatch  framing  of  a 
schooner  and  on  Figs.  201,  202,  206,  207,  212,  213  are 
shown  details  of  hatch  framing  used  on  vessels  con- 
structed from  these  plans. 

On  Fig.  201,  upper  deck  plan,  you  will  clearly  see  the 
continuous  fore-and-aft  members  of  hatch  framing,  and 
on  Fig.  207,  deck  framing  plan,  you  will  note  the  con- 
tinuous under  deck  fore-and-aft  members  of  the  hatch 
framing. 


Chapter   XI 

Ship  Joinery 


Ship  joinery  is  tlie  art  of  cutting,  dressing,  framing, 
and  finisliing  wood  for  the  external  and  internal  finish- 
ing of  a  ship.  The  ship  carpenters  erect  the  structure 
that  gives  strength  to  the  ship  and  their  work  cannot  be 
removed  without  affecting  the  strength  of  structure,  while 
that  of  the  joiners  is  not  intended  to  add  to  structural 
strength  and  therefore  can  be  removed  without  affecting 
strength. 

As  the  finish  and  appearance  of  joiner  work  largely 
depends  upon  the  care  with  which  the  work  is  done  it  is 
essential  that  woods  used  for  joiner  work  be  thoroughly 
seasoned,  be  properly  cut,  and  be  of  kinds  that  will  not 
warp  or  be  affected  by  changes  in  temperature  or  by 
moisture  in  air. 

The  best  joiner  woods  available  for  use  in  U.  S.  A. 
are :  Mahogany,  teak,  Q.  S.  oak,  for  natural  wood  finishes 
and  parts  that  will  be  exposed  to  weather;  and  white 
pine,  yellow  pine,  fir,  cypress,  cedar  for  parts  that  will 
be  painted. 

While  many  of  the  joints  and  methods  of  doing  work 
are  in  common  use  by  both  ship  carpenters  and  joiner 
workers,  it  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  a  good  ship  carpenter 
can  do  good  joiner  work  because  the  nature  of  the  work 
is  entirely  different.  The  ship  carpenter  works  on  heavy 
materials  and  seldom  devotes  much  time  to  finish  of 
surfaces,  while  the  joiner  worker  works  with  light  ma- 
terial and  has  to  continually  think  of  finish  and  appear- 
ance of  the  work  when  it  is  completed. 

On  sheet  A  joiner  work  illustration  sheet,  I  show 
some  commonly  used  joints,  or  joiner  workers'  methods 
of  connecting  pieces  of  wood. 

iia.     Description  of  Sheet  A  Joiner  Work 
Illustrations 

On  this  illustration  sheet  is  shown  a  number  of  joints 
used  by  ship  joiners. 

Fig.  I  shows  a  joint  formed  by  planing  edges  of  board 
perfectly  true  and  inserting  wood  or  iron  pins  (called 
dowels)  at  intervals  along  joined  edges.  The  pin  is 
shown  by  dotted  line,  and  such  a  joint  is  said  to  be 
doweled. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  joint  made  by  grooving  edge  of  one 
piece  of  wood  and  forming  a  tongue  upon  another.  A 
joint  of  this  kind  is  commonly  used  for  uniting  pieces  of 
flooring,  partitions,  etc.  The  shrinking  of  wood  joined 
in  this  manner  will  cause  joint  to  open,  therefore,  it  is 
usual  to  run  a  bead,  or  V,  along  edge  of  one  of  the 
pieces  and  thus  make  shrinkage  opening  less  noticeable. 


Bead  is  shown  by  dotted  line  on  upper  edge  and  V  by 
dotted  line  on  lower  edge  of  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  3  is  a  double-tongued  joint,  now  seldom  used. 

Fig.  4  is  a  combined  tongue-and-groove  joint  with 
rabbet.  It  is  used  on  tight  seamed  floors  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  fasten  the  pieces  along  their  edges. 

In  Fig.  5  the  groove  and  tongue  are  angular. 

Fig.  6  is  a  kind  of  grooving  and  tonguing  resorted  to 
when  the  timber  is  thick,  or  when  the  tongue  requires  to 
be  stronger  than  it  would  be  if  formed  in  the  substance  of 
the  wood  itself.  In  this  mode  of  jointing  corresponding 
grooves  are  formed  in  the  edges  of  the  boards,  and  the 
tongue  is  formed  of  a  slip  of  a  harder  or  stronger  wood. 

Figs.  7,  8,  9  are  examples  of  slip-tongue  joints;  the 
tongue  in  Fig.  9  is  of  wrought  iron. 

Fig.  10  shows  dovetail  grooves,  with  a  slip  tongue  of 
corresponding  form,  which,  of  course,  must  be  inserted 
endways. 

Fig.  II  is  a  simple  rebated  joint.  One-half  the  thick- 
ness of  each  board  is  cut  away  to  the  same  extent,  and 
when  the  edges  are  lapped  the  surfaces  lie  in  the  same 
plane. 

Fig.  12  shows  a  complex  mode  of  grooving  and  tongu- 
ing. The  joint  is  in  this  case  put  together  by  sliding  the 
one  edge  with  its  grooves  and  tongues  endways  into  the 
corresponding  projections  and  recesses  of  the  other.  The 
boards  when  thus  jointed  together  cannot  be  drawn 
asunder  laterally  or  at  right  angles  to  their  surface,  with- 
out rending;  but,  in  the  event  of  shrinking,  there  is  great 
risk  of  the  wood  being  rent. 

In  joining  angles  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  boards 
various  joints  are  used,  among  which  are  those  which 
follow : 

Fig.  13,  the  common  mitre-joint,  used  in  joining  two 
boards  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Each  edge  is  planed 
to  an  angle  of  45°. 

Fig.  14  shows  a  mitre- joint  keyed  by  a  slip-tongue. 

Fig.  15  shows  a  mitre-joint  when  the  boards  are  of 
different  thickness.  The  mitre  on  thicker  piece  is  only 
formed  to  the  same  extent  as  that  on  edge  of  thinner 
piece;  hence  there  is  a  combination  of  the  mitre  and 
simple  butt  joint. 

Fig.  16  shows  a  different  mode  of  joining  two  boards 
of  either  the  same  or  of  different  thickness.  One  board 
is  rebated,  and  only  a  small  portion  at  the  angle  of  each 
board  is  mitred.  This  joint  may  be  nailed  both  ways. 
In  Fig.  17  both  boards  are  rebated,  and  a  slip-tongue 
is  inserted  as  a  key.  This  also  may  be  nailed  through 
from  both  faces. 


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Sheet  A.     Joiner  Work 


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WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Figs.  18.  and  19  are  combinations  of  grooving  and 
tonguing  with  the  last-described  modes.  These  can  be 
fitted  with  great  accuracy  and  joined  with  certainty. 

Fig.  20  is  a  joint  formed  by  the  combination  of  mi- 
tring with  double  grooving  and  tonguing,  shown  in  Fig. 
12.  The  boards  must  in  this  case  be  slipped  together  end- 
ways, and  cannot  be  separated  by  a  force  applied  at  right 
angles  to  the  planes  of  their  surfaces. 

In  all  these  mitre-joints  the  faces  of  boards  meet  at 
the  angle,  and  the  slight  opening  which  might  be  caused 
by  shrinkage  would  be  scarcely  observable.  In  the  butt- 
joints  which  follow,  the  face  of  the  one  board  abuts 
against  the  face  of  the  other,  the  edge  of  which  is  con- 
sequently in  the  plane  of  the  surface  of  first  board,  the 
shrinkage  of  which  would  cause  an  opening  at  joint.  To 
make  this  opening  less  apparent  is  the  object  of  forming 
the  bead-moulding  seen  in  the  next  five  figures. 

In  Fig.  21  the  thicker  board  is  rebated  from  the  face, 
and  a  small  bead  is  formed  on  the  external  angle  of 
abutting  board. 

In  Fig.  22  a  groove  is  formed  in  the  inner  face  of 
one  board  and  a  tongue  on  edge  of  the  other. 

In  Fig.  23  the  boards  are  grooved  and  tongued  as  in 
the  last  figure.  A  cavetto  is  run  on  the  external  angle  of 
abutting  board,  and  the  bead  and  a  cavetto  on  the  in- 
ternal angle  of  other  board. 

In  Fig.  24  a  quirked  bead  run  on  edge  of  one  board, 
and  the  edge  of  abutting  board  forms  the  double  quirk. 

In  Fig.  25  a  double  quirk  bead  is  formed  at  the  ex- 
ternal angle,  and  the  boards  are  grooved  and  tongued. 
The  external  bead  is  attended  with  this  advantage,  that 
it  is  not  so  liable  to  injury  as  the  sharp  arris. 

In  Figs.  26  and  27  the  joints  used  in  putting  together 
cisterns  are  shown. 

Figs.  28  and  29  are  joints  for  the  same  purpose.  They 
are  of  the  dovetail  form,  and  require  to  be  slipped  to- 
gether endways. 

Figs.  30  to  35  show  the  same  kind  of  joints  as  have 
been  described,  applied  to  the  framing  together  of  boards 
meeting  in  an  obtuse  angle. 

Figs.  36  and  37  show  methods  of  joining  boards  to- 
gether laterally  by  keys,  in  the  manner  of  scarphing;  and 
Fig.  38  shows  another  method  of  securing  two  pieces, 
such  as  those  of  a  circular  window  frame-head  by  keys. 

The  methods  of  joining  timber  described  are  all  more 
or  less  imperfect.  The  liability  of  wood  to  shrink  ren- 
ders it  essential  that  the  joiner  should  use  it  in  such 
narrow  widths  as  to  prevent  this  tendency  marring  the 
appearance  of  his  work ;  and,  as  even  when  so  used  it  will 
still  expand  and  contract,  provision  should  be  made  to 
admit  of  this.  The  groove-and-tongue  joint  admits  of  a 
certain  amount  of  variation,  and  the  grooved,  tongued, 
and  beaded  joint  admits  of  this  variation  with  a  degree  of 
concealment,  but  the  most  perfect  mode  of  satisfying  both 
conditions  is  by  the  use  of  framed  work. 

Framing  in  joinery  consists  of  pieces  of  wood  of  the 


same  thickness,  nailed  together  so  as  to  inclose  a  space 
or  spaces.  These  spaces  are  filled  in  with  boards  of  a  less 
thickness,  termed  panels. 

On  sheet  B  joiner  work  illustrations  is  shown  method 
of  framing  joiner  work  partitions,  doors,  etc. 

lib.     Description  of  Sheet  B  Joiner  Work 
Illustrations 

In  Fig.  ih,  a  a,b  b  shows  framing,  c  c  raised  panel  and 
c  plain  panels.  The  vertical  pieces  of  the  framing  a  a 
are  termed  styles,  and  the  horizontal  pieces  b  b  are 
termed  rails.  The  rails  have  tenons  which  are  let  into 
mortises  in  the  styles.  The  inner  edges  of  both  styles  and 
rails  are  grooved  to  receive  the  edges  of  panels,  and  thus 
the  panel  is  at  liberty  to  expand  and  contract.  Framing 
is  always  used  for  the  better  description  of  work.  Wide 
panels  should  be  formed  of  narrow  pieces  glued  together, 
with  the  grain  reversed  alternately.  They  should  never 
exceed  15  inches  wide,  and  4  feet  long.  These  dimensions, 
indeed,  are  extremes  which  should  be  avoided. 

The  panels  may  be  boards  of  equal  thickness  through- 
out, in  which  case  the  grooves  in  the  styles  and  rails  are 
made  of  sufficient  width  to  admit  their  edges,  as  in  Fig. 
2b  dotted  line.  These  are  termed  flat  panels.  Flush 
panels,  again,  have  one  of  their  faces  in  the  same  plane 
as  the  face  of  framing,  and  are  rebated  round  the  edges 
until  a  tongue  sufficient  to  fit  the  groove  is  left.  Raised 
panels  are  those  of  which  the  thickness  is  such  that  one  of 
their  surfaces  is  a  little  below  the  framing,  but  at  a  cer- 
tain distance  from  the  inner  edge,  all  round  it,  begins 
to  diminish  in  thickness  to  the  edge,  which  is  thinned  off 
to  enter  the  groove.  The  line  at  which  the  diminution 
takes  place  is  marked  either  by  a  square  sinking  or  a 
moulding.  All  these  kinds  of  panels  are  sometimes 
combined. 

Flush  panel  framing  has  generally  a  simple  bead  stuck 
on  its  edges  all  round  the  panel,  and  the  work  is  called 
bead  flush.  But  in  inferior  work  the  bead  is  run  on  the 
edge  of  the  panels  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  only,  that 
is,  on  the  two  sides  of  each  panel,  while  its  two  ends  are 
left  plain;  this  is  termed  bead  butt.  The  nomenclature, 
however,  of  the  various  descriptions  of  framed,  and  of 
framed  and  moulded  work,  will  be  best  understood  by 
reference  to  the  annexed  figures.  Fig.  2b  dotted  line  is  the 
flat  panel.  In  this  the  framing  is  not  moulded,  and  is 
termed  square.  In  Figs.  2b  and  3b  the  same  framing  is 
shown  with  a  moulding  stuck  on  it.  In  Fig.  4b  the  same 
framing  is  shown  with  a  moulding  laid  in  or  planted  on 
each  side.  In  Fig.  5b  a  bead  flush  panel  is  represented  ; 
Fig.  6b  a  raised  panel  with  stuck  mouldings ;  and  Fig.  7b  a 
panel  raised  on  one  side  with  stuck  mouldings. 

lie.    Dovetailing 

Dovetail-joint. — ^This  joint  has  three  varieties: — ist, 
the  common  dovetail,  where  the  dovetails  are  seen  on  each 
side  of  the  angle  alternately;  2d,  the  lapped  dovetail,  in 


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Slwet  0.     Joiner  Work 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


113 


which  the  dovetails  are  seen  only  on  one  side  of  angle; 
and,  3d,  the  lapped  and  mitred  dovetail,  in  which  the  joint 
appears  externally  as  a  common  mitre-joint.  The  lapped 
and  mitred  joint  is  useful  in  salient  angles,  in  finished 
work,  but  it  is  not  so  strong  as  the  common  dovetail,  and 
therefore,  in  all  re-entrant  angles,  the  latter  should  be 
used. 

The  three  varieties  of  dovetail-joint  above  enumerated 
are  illustrated  on  sheet  C  joiner  work  illustration. 

Description  of  Sheet  C  Joiner  Work  Illustrations 
Fig.  I,  No.  I  is  an  elevation  of  the  common  dovetail- 
joint  ;  No.  2,  a  perspective  representation ;  and  No.  3,  a 
plan  of  the  same. 

In  all  the  figures  the  pins  or  dovetails  of  the  one  side 
are  marked  a,  and  those  of  the  other  side  are  marked  b. 

Fig.  2,  Nos.  I,  2,  3. — In  these  the  lap-joint  is  repre- 
sented in  plan,  elevation,  and  perspective  projection. 

F'?-  3.  ^os.  I,  2,  3. — In  these  figures  the  mitred  dove- 
tail-joint is  represented  in  plan,  elevation,  and  perspective. 
The  dovetails  of  adjoining  sides  are  marked  respectively 
B  and  c  in  all  figures. 

Fig.  4,  Nos.  I,  2  and  Fig.  5,  Nos.  i,  2,  show  methods 
of  dovetailing  an  angle  when  sides  are  inclined.  The 
pins  of  one  side  are  marked  a  and  those  of  the  other 
B  on  all  figures. 

I  id.     Hinging 

Hinging  is  the  art  of  hanging  two  pieces  of  wood  to- 
gether, such  as  a  door  to  its  frame,  by  certain  ligaments 
that  permit  one  or  other  of  them  to  revolve.  The  liga- 
ment is  termed  a  hinge. 

Hinges  are  of  many  sorts,  among  which  may  be  enu- 
merated butts,  rising  hinges,  casement  hin!.;es,  chest 
hinges,  folding  hinges,  screw  hinges,  scuttle  hinges,  shut- 
ter hinges,  desk  hinges,  back  fold  hinges,  and  center-pin 
or  center-point  hinges. 

As  there  are  many  varieties  of  hinges,  there  are  also 
many  modes  of  applying  even  the  simplest  of  them.  In 
some  cases  the  hinge  is  visible,  in  others  it  is  necessary 
that  it  should  be  concealed.  In  some  it  is  required  not 
only  that  the  one  hinged  part  shall  revolve  on  the  other, 
but  it  shall  be  thrown  back  to  a  greater  or  lesser  distance 
from  the  joint. 

On  illustration  sheets  D,  E,  F,  joiner  work  are  shown 
a  great  variety  of  hinges  and  methods  of  hinging. 

Description  of  Sheet  D  Joiner  Work  Illustrations 

Fig.  I,  No.  I,  shows  the  hinging  of  a  door  to  open 
to  a  right  angle,  as  in  No.  2. 

Fig.  2,  Nos.  I  and  2,  and  Fig.  3,  Xos  i  and  2.  These 
figures  show  other  modes  of  hinging  doors  to  open  to  90°. 

Fig.  4,  Nos.  I  and  2.  These  figures  show  a  manner  of 
hinging  a  door  to  open  to  90°,  and  in  which  the  hinge  is 
concealed.  The  segments  are  described  from  center  of 
hinge  g,  and  the  dark  shaded  portion  requires  to  be  cut 
out  to  permit  it  to  pass  the  leaf  of  hinge  g  f. 

Fig.  5,  Nos.  I  and  2,  show  an  example  of  center-pin 


hinge  permitting  door  to  open  either  way,  and  to  fold 
back  against  the  wall  in  either  direction.  Draw  a  fo  at 
right  angles  to  door,  and  just  clearing  the  Hne  of  wall, 
or  rather  representing  the  plane  in  which  the  inner  face 
of  door  will  lie  when  folded  back  against  wall ;  bisect 
it  in  /,  and  draw  /  d  the  perpendicular  to  a  b,  which  make 
equal  to  a  f  or  f  b,  and  d  is  the  place  of  the  center  of 
hinge. 

Fig.  6,  Nos.  I  and  2,  another  variety  of  center-pin 
hinging  opening  to  90°.  The  distance  of  b  from  o  c  is 
equal  to  half  of  a  c.  In  this,  as  in  the  former  case,  there 
is  a  space  between  door  and  wall  when  the  former  is 
folded  back.     In  the  succeeding  figures  this  is  obviated. 

Fig.  7,  No.  I.  Bisect  the  angle  at  a  by  the  line  a  b; 
draw  d  e  and  make  e  g  equal  to  once  and  a  half  times 
ad;  draw  f  g  aX  right  angle  to  e  d,  and  bisect  the  angle 
f  g  ehy  the  line  c  g,  meeting  ab  inb,  which  is  the  center 
of  hinge. 

No.  2  shows  the  door  folded  back  when  the  point  e 
falls  on  the  continuation  of  line  /  g. 

Fig.  8,  Nos.  I  and  2.  To  find  the  center  draw  a  b, 
making  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  inner  edge  of  door,  and 
draw  c  b  parallel  to  the  jamb,  meeting  it  in  b,  which 
is  the  center  of  hinge.  The  door  revolves  to  the  extent 
of  quadrant  d  c. 

Description  of  Sheet  E  Joiner  Work  Illustrations 
Fig.  I,  Nos.  I  and  2;  Fig.  2,  Nos.  i  and  2;  and  Fig. 

3,  Nos.  I  and  2,  examples  of  center-pin  joints,  and  Fig. 

4,  Nos.  I  and  2,  do  not  require  detailed  description. 

Fig.  5,  Nos.  I,  2,  and  3,  show  the  flap  with  a  bead  a 
closing  into  a  corresponding  hollow,  so  that  the  joint  can- 
not be  seen  through. 

Fig.  6,  Nos.  I,  2,  and  3,  show  the  hinge  a  b  equally 
let  into  the  styles,  and  its  knuckle  forming  a  part  of  the 
bead  on  edge  of  style  b.  The  beads  on  each  side  are  equal 
and  opposite  to  each  other,  and  the  joint  pin  is  in  the 
center. 

Fig.  7,  Nos.  I,  2,  and  3.  In  this  example,  the  knuckle 
of  hinge  forms  portion  of  bead  on  style  b,  which  is  equal 
and  opposite  to  the  bead  on  style  a. 

In  Fig.  8,  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3,  the  beads  are  not  opposite. 

Description  of  Sheet  F  Joiner  Work  Illustrations 

Fig.  I,  shows  the  hinging  of  a  back  flap  when  the 
center  of  hinge  is  in  the  middle  of  joint. 

Fig.  2,  Nos.  I  and  2,  shows  the  manner  of  hinging  a 
back  flap  when  it  is  necessary  to  throw  the  flap  back  from 
the  joint. 

Fig.  3,  Nos.  I  and  2,  is  an  example  of  a  rule-joint- 
hinge.  The  further  the  hinge  is  imbedded  in  the  wood, 
the  greater  will  be  the  cover  of  joint  when  opened  to 
a  right  angle. 

Fig.  4,  Nos.  I  and  2,  shows  the  manner  of  finding  the 
rebate  when  hinge  is  placed  on  the  contrary  side. 

Let  /  be  the  center  of  hinge,  a  b  the  line  of  joint  on 
the  same  side,  h  c  the  line  of  joint  on  the  Opposite  side, 


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Fi^J.J/'Z. 


Fig.SrJ/^l. 


Sbeet  £.     Joiner  Work  Hinging 


ii6 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


and  b  c  the  total  depth  of  rebate.  Bisect  b  c  m  e  and 
join  e  f ;  on  e  f  describe  a  semicircle  cutting  a  b  in  g,  and 
through  g  and  e  draw  g  h  cutting  d  c  in  h,  and  join  d  h, 
h  g,  and  g  a  io  form  the  joint. 

Fig.  5,  Nos.  I  and  2,  is  a  method  of  hinging  employed 
when  the  flap  on  being  opened  has  to  be  at  a  distance 
from  the  style.  It  is  used  to  throw  the  opened  flap  or 
door  clear  of  the  mouldings  of  coping. 

Fig.  6,  Nos.  I  and  2,  is  the  ordinary  mode  of  hinging 
shutter  to  a  sash  frame. 

lie.     Mouldings 

A  few  of  the  principal  ornamental  mouldings  used 
by  joiners  is  illustrated  and  described  in  this  chapter. 
The  names  given  to  the  mouldings  are  the  proper  archi- 
tectural ones  and  the  methods  of  laying  the  mouldings  out 
are  described  in  detail. 

Grecian  and  Roman  versions  of  the  same  mouldings 
are  shown  on  sheet  G  joiner  illustrations. 

Fillet  or  Listel  right-angled  mouldings  require  no  de- 
scription. 

The  Astragal  or  Bead. — To  describe  this  moulding, 
divide  its  height  into  two  equal  parts,  and  from  the  point 
of  division  as  a  center,  describe  a  semicircle,  which  is  the 
contour  of  the  astragal. 

Doric  Annulets. — The  left-hand  figure  shows  the 
Roman,  and  the  right-hand  figure  the  Grecian  form  of 
this  moulding.  To  describe  the  latter  proceed  thus: — 
Divide  the  height  b  a  into  four  equal  parts,  and  make 
the  projection  equal  to  three  of  them.  The  vertical  divi- 
sions give  the  lines  of  the  under  side  of  the  annulets,  and 
the  height  of  each  annulet,  c  c,  is  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the 
projection ;  the  upper  surface  of  c  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of  slope. 

Listel  and  Fascia. — (Roman.) — Divide  the  whole 
height  into  seven  equal  parts,  make  the  listel  equal  to 
two  of  these  and  its  projection  equal  to  two.  With  the 
third  vertical  division  as  a  center,  describe  a  quadrant. 
(Grecian.) — Divide  the  height  into  four  equal  parts,  make 
the  fillet  equal  to  one  of  them,  and  its  projection  equal  to 
three-fourths  of  its  height. 

Caz-etto  or  Hollow. — In  Roman  architecture  this 
moulding  is  a  circular  quadrant ;  in  Grecian  architecture 
it  is  an  elliptical  quadrant,  which  may  be  described  by 
any  of  the  methods  given  in  the  first  part  of  the  work. 

Ovolo  or  Quarter-round. — This  is  a  convex  moulding, 
the  reverse  of  the  cavetto,  but  described  in  the  same 
manner. 

Cyma  Recta. — A  curve  of  double  curvature,  formed  of 
two  equal  quadrants.  In  the  Roman  moulding  these  are 
circular,  and  in  the  Grecian  moulding  elliptical. 

Cyma  Reversa. — A  curve  of  double  curvature,  like  the 
former,  and  formed  in  the  same  manner. 

Trochilus  or  Scotia. — A  hollow  moulding,  which,  in 
Roman  architecture,  is  formed  of  two  unequal  circular 
arcs,  thus : — Divide  the  height  into  ten  equal  parts,  and 


at  the  sixth  division  draw  a  horizontal  line.  From  the 
seventh  division  as  a  center,  and  with  seven  divisions  as 
radius,  describe  from  the  lower  part  of  the  moulding  an 
arc,  cutting  the  above  horizontal  line,  and  join  the  center 
and  the  point  of  intersection  by  a  line  which  bisects ;  and 
from  the  point  of  bisection  as  a  center,  with  half  the 
length  of  the  line  as  radius,  describe  an  arc  to  form  the 
upper  part  of  the  curve.  There  are  many  other  methods 
of  drawing  this  moulding.  The  Grecian  trochilus  is  an 
elliptical  or  parabolic  curve,  the  proportions  of  which  are 
shown  by  the  divisions  of  the  dotted  lines. 

The  Torus. — The  Roman  moulding  is  semi-cylindrical, 
and  its  contour  is  of  course  a  semicircle.  The  Grecian 
moulding  is  either  elliptical  or  parabolic ;  and  although 
this  and  the  other  Greek  mouldings  may  be  drawn,  as  we 
have  said,  by  one  or  other  of  the  methods  of  drawing 
ellipses  and  parabolas,  described  in  the  first  part  of  the 
work,  and  by  other  methods  about  to  be  illustrated,  it  is 
much  better  to  become  accustomed  to  sketch  them  by  the 
eye,  first  setting  off  their  projections,  as  shown  in  this 
plate,  by  the  divisions  of  the  dotted  lines. 

Description  of  Sheet  H  Joiner  Work  Illustrations 

The  figures  in  this  plate  illustrate  various  ways  of 
describing  the  ovolo,  trochilus  or  scotia,  cyma  recta, 
cyma  reversa,  and  torus. 

Fig.  I. — The  Quirked  Ovolo. — The  projection  of  the 
moulding  is  in  this  case  made  equal  to  five-sevenths  of  its 
height,  as  seen  by  the  divisions,  and  the  radius  of  the 
circle  b  c  i%  made  equal  to  two  of  the  divisions,  but  any 
other  proportions  may  be  taken.  Describe  the  circle  b  c, 
forming  the  upper  part  of  the  contour,  and  from  the  point 
g  draw  g  h,  to  form  a  tangent  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
curve.  Draw  g  a  perpendicular  to  g  h,  and  make  g  f 
equal  to  the  radius  d  f  of  the  circle  b  c,  join  /  rf  by  a 
straight  line,  which  bisect  by  a  line  perpendicular  to  it, 
meeting  g  a  in  a.  Join  a  d,  and  produce  the  line  to  c. 
Then  from  a  as  a  center,  with  the  radius  a  c  or  a  g,  de- 
scribe the  curve  c  g. 

Fig.  2. — To  draw  an  ovolo,  the  tangent  d  e,  and  the 
projection  b,  being  given. 

Through  the  point  of  extreme  projection  b,  draw  the 
vertical  line  g  h,  and  through  b  draw  b  c  parallel  to  the 
tangent  d  e,  and  draw  c  d  parallel  to  g  h,  and  produce 
it  to  a,  making  c  a  equal  to  c  d.  Divide  e  b  and  c  b  each 
into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  and  through  the 
points  of  division  in  c  6  draw  from  a  straight  lines,  and 
through  the  points  of  division  in  e  b  draw  from  d  right 
lines,  cutting  those  drawn  from  a.  The  intersections 
will  be  points  in  the  curve. 

Fig.  3. — To  draw  an  ovolo  under  the  same  conditions 
as  before,  vis.,  when  the  projection  f,  and  the  tangent  c  g, 
are  given. 

The  mode  of  operation  is  similar  to  the  last:  f  d  is 
drawn  parallel  to  the  tangent  c  g,  and  c  d  parallel  to  the 
perpendicular  a  b,  d  e  is  made  equal  to  c  d,  and  d  f  and 
c)  f  are  each  divided  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts. 


Fi^  2. 


Fi^.2.'J/°l. 


Fig.  3.  J^l. 


Fig.S.JV'Z. 


Fiq.  2.^-^2. 


Ftq  4  JV''2 


Fig.S.MZ 


Fig.  S  JT'J. 


Fix^.e.jf.i 


Fig.  6.  JfZ 


Sheet  F.     Joiner  Work  Hinging 


Homan/ 


Fillet  orLLfleL. 


Gr&cicuv. 


Astray  aL  or  BexiAi. 


Doric  AnnuZets . 


T 


Lisleiy  cundj  Fadcu . 


Caveito  or  Hollow. 


I 


Ovolo  or  QiLorlo  RouTid. 


Cymcu  Rectcb. 


Cyrruv  Reverso/. 


T' 


L._^    TrocMLas  or  ScoUcu.  p-^_^ 


Torus. 


Sbe«t  O.     Joiner  Work  Monldlngs 


Sheet  H.     Joiner  Work  Mouldings 


120 


^WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.  4. — In  this  the  same  things  are  given,  and  the 
same  mode  of  operation  is  followed.  By  these  methods 
and  those  about  to  be  described,  a  more  beautiful  contour 
is  obtained  than  can  be  described  by  parts  of  circular 
curves. 

Fig.  5. — ^Divide  the  height  b  a  into  seven  equal  parts, 
and  make  a  r  equal  to  6  o  i  J^  of  a  division ;  join  c  r,  and 
produce  it  to  d,  and  make  c  d  equal  to  8^  divisions. 
Bisect  c  d  in  i,  and  draw  through  i,  4  i  at  right  angles  to 
c  d,  and  produce  it  to  e ;  make  i  e  equal  to  b  0,  and  from 
e  as  a  center,  with  radius  e  c  or  e  d,  describe  the  arc  c  d. 
Then  divide  the  arc  into  equal  parts,  and  draw  ordinates 
to  c  d,  m  1  f,  2  g,  2i  h,  4  i,  etc.,  and  correspondmg  ordi- 
nates f  k,  g  I,  h  m,  i  n,  to  find  the  curve. 

Fig.  6. — The  height  is  divided  into  eight  equal  parts, 
seven  of  which  are  given  to  the  projection  d  c.  Join  d  and 
the  fifth  division  e,  and  draw  d  o  at  right  angles  to  d  e. 
Make  d  f  equal  to  two  divisions,  and  draw  /  g  parallel  to 
d  e,  then  d  f  \s  the  semi-axis  minor,  and  d  g  the  semi-axis 
major  of  the  ellipse;  and  the  curve  can  either  be  tram- 
melled or  drawn  by  means  of  the  lines  a  h,  m  k,  0  p, 
being  made  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  semi-axis, 
as  in  the  problem  referred  to. 

Fig.  7. — To  describe  the  hyperbolic  ovolo  of  the  Gre- 
cian Doric  capital,  the  tangent  a  c,  and  projection  b,  being 
given. 

Draw  d  e  g  k  a  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and 
draw  g  h  and  ^  /  at  right  angles  to  d  e  g  k  a.  Make  g  a 
equal  to  d  g,  and  e  k  equal  to  d  e;  join  h  k.  Divide  h  k 
and  /  h  into  the  same  number  of  parts,  and  draw  lines 
from  a  through  the  divisions  of  k  h,  and  lines  from  d 
through  the  divisions  of  /  h,  and  their  intersections  are 
points  in  the  curve. 

Fig.  8  is  an  elegant  mode  of  drawing  the  Roman 
trochilus.  Bisect  the  height  /;  b  in  e,  and  draw  e  f, 
cutting  ^  c  in  /;  divide  the  projection  h  g  into  three 
equal  parts,  make  e  0  equal  to  one  of  the  divisions,  and 
/  d  equal  to  two  of  them,  join  d  0,  and  produce  the  line 
to  a.  Make  d  c  equal  to  d  g,  and  draw  c  b,  and  produce 
it  to  a.  Then  from  rf  as  a  center,  with  radius  d  a  or  d  g, 
describe  the  arc  g  a;  and  from  o  as  a  center,  with  radius 
o  a,  describe  the  arc  a  b. 

Fig.  9  shows  the  method  of  drawing  the  .Grecian  tro- 
chilus by  intersecting  lines  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
rampant  ellipse. 

Fig.  10  shows  the  cyma  recta  formed  by  two  equal  op- 
posite curves.  By  taking  a  greater  number  of  points  as 
•centers,  a  figure  resembling  still  closer  the  true  elliptical 
curve  will  be  produced. 

Fig.  1 1  shows  the  cyma  recta  formed  with  true  ellipti- 
cal quadrants,  or  they  may  be  trammelled  by  a  slip  of 
paper. 

Fig.  12  shows  the  cyma  reversa,  obtained  in  the  same 
manner.  The  lines  c  d,  e  h  are  the  semi-axes  major,  and 
the  line  0  n  is  the  semi-axis  minor,  common  to  both 
curves. 


Figs.  13  and  14  show  the  cyma  recta  used  as  a  base 
moulding,  and  Fig.  15  the  Grecian  torus. 

I  if.     Stairs 

Stairs  are  constructions  composed  of  horizontal  planes 
elevated  above  each  other,  forming  steps;  affording  the 
means  of  communication  between  different  decks  of  a 
vessel. 

Definitions. — The  opening  in  yvhich  the  stair  is  placed, 
is  called  the  staircase. 

The  horizontal  part  of  a  step  is  called  the  tread,  the 
vertical  part  the  riser,  the  breadth  or  distance  from  riser 
to  riser  the  going,  the  distance  from  the  first  to  the  last 
riser  in  a  flight  the  going  of  the  flight. 

When  the  risers  are  parallel  with  each  other,  the  stairs 
are  of  course  straight. 

When  the  steps  are  narrower  at  one  end  than  the 
other,  they  are  termed  winders. 

When  the  bottom  step  has  a  circular  end,  it  is  called  a 
round-ended  step;  when  the  end  is  formed  into  a  spiral, 
it  is  called  a  curtail  step. 

The  wide  step  introduced  as  a  resting-place  in  the 
ascent  is  o  landing,  and  the  top  of  a  stair  is  also  so  called. 

When  the  landing  at  a  resting  place  is  square,  it  is 
designated  a  quarter  space. 

When  the  landing  occupies  the  whole  width  of  the 
staircase  it  is  called  a  half  space. 

So  much  of  a  stair  as  is  included  between  two  landings 
is  called  a  flight,  especially  if  the  risers  are  parallel  with 
each  other :  the  steps  in  this  case  are  fliers. 

The  outward  edge  of  a  step  is  named  the  nosing;  if  it 
project  beyond  the  riser,  so  as  to  receive  a  hollow  mould- 
ing glued  under  it,  it  is  a  moulded  nosing.  ■ 

A  straight-edge  laid  on  the  nosings  represents  the 
angle  of  the  stairs,  and  is  denominated  the  line  of  nosings. 

The  raking  pieces  which  support  the  ends  of  the  steps 
are  called  strings.  The  inner  one  is  the  wall  string;  the 
other  the  outer  string.  If  the  outer  string  be  cut  to 
mitre  with  the  end  of  the  riser,  it  is  a  cut  and  mitred 
string ;  but  when  the  sti'ings  are  grooved  to  receive  the 
ends  of  the  treads  and  risers,  they  are  said  to  be  housed, 
and  the  grooves  are  termed  housings. 

Economy  of  space  in  the  construction  of  stairs  is 
an  important  consideration.  To  obtain  this,  the  stairs 
are  made  to  turn  upon  themselves,  one  flight  being  carried 
above  another  at  such  a  height  as  will  admit  of  head  room 
to  a  full-grown  person. 

Method  of  Setting  Out  Stairs 

The  first  objects  to  be  ascertained  are  the  situation  of 
first  and  last  risers,  and  the  height  wherein  the  stair 
is  to  be  placed. 

The  height  is  next  taken  on  a  rod;  then,  assuming 
a  height  of  riser  suitable  to  the  place,  a  trial  is  made,  by 
division,  how  often  this  height  is  contained  in  the  height 
between  decks,  and  the  quotient,  if  there  be  no  remainder, 
will  be  the  number  of  risers.     Should  there  be  a  remain- 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


121 


Sbeet  I.     Joiner  Work  Handrails 


der  on  the  first  division,  the  operation  is  reversed,  the 
number  of  inches  in  the  height  being  made  the  dividend, 
and  the  before-found  quotient  the  divisor,  and  the  opera- 
tion of  division  by  reduction  is  carried  on,  till  the  height 
of  riser  is  obtained  to  the  thirty-second  part  of  an  inch. 
These  heights  are  then  set  of?  on  a  measurement  rod  as 
exactly  as  possible. 

It  is  a  general  maxim  that  the  greater  the  breadth  of 
a  step  the  less  should  be  the  height  of  the  riser ;  and  con- 
versely, the  less  the  breadth  of  step,  the  greater  should 
be  the  height  of  the  riser.  Experience  shows  that  a  step 
of  12  inches  width  and  SJ4  inches  rise,  may  be  taken  as 
a  standard. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  proportion  of  the  step 
and  riser  is  exactly  a  matter  of  choice — the  room  allotted 
to  the  stairs  usually  determines  this  proportion;  but  the 
above  will  be  found  a  useful  standard,  to  which  it  is 
desirable  to  approximate. 


A  proportion  for  steps  and  risers  may  be  obtained  by 
the   annexed    method : — 


Treads  in 

Risers  in 

Treads  in 

Risers  in 

s 

9 

12 

53^2 

6 

8/2 

13 

5 

7 

8 

14 

4J4 

8 

7^ 

IS 

4 

9 

7 

16 

3/2 

lO 

6/2 

17 

3 

II 

6 

18 

2/2 

Set  down  two  sets  of  numbers,  each  in  arithmetical 
progression ;  the  first  set  showing  the  width  of  the  steps, 
ascending  by  inches,  the  other  showing  the  height  of  the 
riser,  descending  by  half  inches.  It  will  readily  be  seen 
that  each  of  these  steps  and  risers  are  such  as  may 
suitably  pair  together. 

The  landing  covers  one  riser,  and  therefore  the  num- 
ber of  steps  in  a  flight  will  be  always  one  fewer  than 


122 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


the  number  of  risers.  The  width  of  tread  which  can  be 
obtained  for  each  flight  will  thus  be  found,  and  con- 
sistent with  the  situation,  the  plan  will  be  so  far  decided. 
A  pitch-board  should  now  be  formed  to  the  angle  of  in- 
clination: this  is  done  by  making  a  piece  of  thin  board 
in  the  shape  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  the  base  of  which 
is  the  exact  going  of  the  step,  and  its  perpendicular  the 
height  of  the  riser. 

If  the  stair  be  a  newel  stair,  its  width  will  be  found  by 
setting  out  the  plan  and  section  of  the  newel  on  the 
landing. 

Then  mark  the  place  of  the  outer  or  front  string,  and 
also  the  place  of  the  back  or  wall  string,  according  to  the 
intended  thickness  of  each.  This  should  be  done  not  only 
to  a  scale  on  the  plan,  but  likewise  to  the  full  size  on  the 
rod.  Set  off  on  the  rod,  in  the  thickness  of  each  string, 
the  depth  of  the  grooving  of  the  steps  into  the  string; 
mark  also  on  the  plan  the  place  and  section  of  the  bottom 
newel. 

When  two  flights  are  necessary,  it  is  desirable  that 
each  flight  should  consist  of  an  equal  number  of  risers ; 
but  this  will  depend  on  the  form  of  staircase,  situation, 
height  of  doors,  and  other  obstacles  to  be  passed  over 
or  under,  as  the  case  may  be. 

I  ig.     Handrails 

The  height  of  the  handrail  of  a  stair,  as  the  following 
considerations  will  show,  need  not  be  uniform  throughout, 
but  may  be  varied  within  the  limits  of  a  few  inches,  so 
as  to  secure  a  graceful  line  at  the  changes  of  direction. 
In  ascending  a  stair  the  body  is  naturally  thrown  forward, 
and  in  descending  it  is  thrown  back,  and  it  is  only  when 
standing  or  walking  on  the  level  that  it  maintains  an  up- 
right position.  Hence  the  rail  may  be  with  propriety 
made  higher  where  it  is  level  at  the  landings,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  body  being  then  erect,  than  at  the  sloping  part, 
where  the  body  is  naturally  more  or  less  bent. 

The  height  of  the  rail  on  the  nosings  of  the  straight 
part  of  the  stairs  should  be  2  feet  7j4  inches,  measuring 
from  the  tread  to  its  upper  side;  to  this  there  should  be 
added  at  the  landings  the  height  of  half  a  riser. 

In  winding  stairs,  regard  should  be  had,  in  adjusting 
the  height  of  the  rail,  to  the  position  of  a  person  using  it, 
who  may  be  thrown  further  from  it  at  some  points  than 
at  others,  not  only  by  the  narrowing  of  the  treads,  but 
by  the  oblique  position  of  the  risers. 

Sections  of  Handrails.— In  Sheet  I.  some  of  the  usual 
forms  of  the  sections  of  handrails  are  given.  To  de- 
scribe Fig.  3,  divide  the  width  6  6  in  twelve  parts,  bisect 
it  by  the  line  a  b,  at  right  angles  to  6  6;  make  c  b  equal 
to  seven,  a  c  equal  to  three  such  parts,  and  b  i  also  equal 
to  three  parts ;  set  off  one  part  from  6  to  7,  draw  the 
lines  7  i  on  each  side  of  the  figure;  set  the  compasses 
in  4  4,  extend  them  to  6  6,  and  describe  the  arcs  at  6  6 


to  form  the  sides  of  the  figure;  also  set  the  compasses 
in  B,  extending  them  to  a,  and  describe  the  arc  at  a  to 
form  the  top ;  make  /  b  equal  to  two  parts,  and  draw  the 
line  k  I  k;  take  four  parts  in  the  compasses,  and  from  the 
points  4  4  describe  the  arcs  e  f,  then  with  two  parts  in 
the  compasses,  one  foot  being  placed  in  k,  draw  the  inter- 
secting arcs  g  h ;  from  these  intersections  as  centres,  de- 
scribe the  remaining  portions  of  the  curves,  and  by  join- 
ing k  i,  k  i,  complete  figure. 

In  Fig.  4  divide  the  width  c  D  into  twelve  equal  parts ; 
make  6  m  equal  to  6  parts;  6  b  and  m  h  respectively, 
equal  to  two  parts,  and  m  i  equal  to  three  parts;  make 
e  h  and  h  f  respectively,  equal  to  two  parts ;  then  in  / 
and  e  set  one  foot  of  the  compasses,  and  with  a  radius 
equal  to  one  and  a  half  parts,  describe  the  arcs  g  g ;  from 
the  point  m,  with  the  radius  m  a,  describe  the  arc  at  a 
meeting  the  arcs  g  g,  to  form  the  top  reed  of  the  figure; 
from  2  with  a  radius  equal  to  two  parts,  describe  the  side 
reeds  c  and  d;  draw  i  d  parallel  to  a  b;  and  with  a 
radius  of  one  part  from  the  points  d  d  describe  the  reed 
d  for  the  bottom  of  the  rail,  which  completes  the  figure. 

Fig.  5  is  another  similar  section  of  handrail.  The 
width  6  6  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  as  before;  the 
point  4  is  the  center  for  the  side  of  the  figure,  which  is 
described  with  a  radius  of  two  parts ;  a  m  is  made  equal  to 
three  parts,  and  b  w  to  eight  parts,  and  m  n  equal  to 
seven  parts ;  then  will  a  b  be  the  radius,  and  b  the  center 
for  the  top  of  the  rail.  Take  seven  parts  in  the  com- 
passes, and  from  the  center  6  in  the  vertical  line  a  b, 
describe  the  arcs  g  h,  g  h\  take  six  parts  in  the  compasses, 
and  from  the  center  4,  describe  the  arcs  e  f,  e  f;  draw  the 
line  d  d  through  the  point  n;  from  the  intersections  at 
e  f  g  h,  as  3l  center,  with  the  radius  of  four  parts,  and 
from  4,  as  a  center,  with  the  radius  of  two  parts,  describe 
the  curve  of  contrary  flexure  forming  the  side  of  the  rail ; 
then  from  d,  with  the  radius  of  one  part,  describe  the 
arc  at  d,  forming  the  astragal  for  the  bottom  of  the  rail. 

Fig.  6. — To  describe  this  figure,  let  the  width  6  6  be 
divided  into  12  parts ;  make  m  4  equal  to  four  parts,  m  6 
equal  to  6  parts,  and  6  8  equal  to  2  parts ;  make  6  d  equal 
to  5  parts,  and  draw  the  dotted  lines  d  4;  also  the  lines 
4  g.  On  these  lines  make  /  4  equal  to  two  parts,  /  o  equal 
to  half  a  part,  and  0  g  equal  to  four  parts ;  also  make  m  k 
equal  to  one  part,  and  draw  the  lines  g  k ;  from  k,  as  a 
center,  describe  the  arc  at  a  for  the  top  of  the  rail;  from 
g  describe  the  arcs  ho.  At  4  and  4,  with  the  radius  of 
two  parts,  describe  the  arcs  at  6  for  the  sides  of  the  rail ; 
then  from  d  set  off  the  distance  of  two  parts  on  the  line 
d  4,  and  from  this  point  as  a  center,  with  a  radius  of  two 
parts,  describe  the  curves  of  contrary  flexure  terminating 
in  d  d,  which  will  complete  the  curved  parts  of  the  figure. 
Continue  the  line  6  6  the  distance  of  four  parts  on  each 
side  to  the  points  4':  from  these  points,  and  through  the 
points  d  d,  draw  the  lines  d  d  for  the  chamfer  at  the 
bottom  of  the  rail,  thus  completing  the  entire  figure. 


Chapter  XII 

Sails 


As  a  builder  of  ships  should  have  a  general  knowledge 
of  sails,  I  have  devoted  this  chapter  to  illustrating  and 
describing  rigs  of  vessels  and  boats. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  do  more  than  give  a 
general  description  and  complete  lists  of  sails  of  the 
various  rigs.  Each  rig  is  illustrated  and  identifying  num- 
bers are  marked  against  each  sail. 

^        1 2a.     Ship  Sails 

Fig.  loi  is  an  illustration  of  a  full-rigged  ship,  sails 
being  numbered  for  identification,  the  name  of  each  sail 
being  listed  below  with  identifying  numbers  against  it. 


Fig.   101.      SMp 

DIFFERENT  RIGS  OF  VESSELS 

Ship,  Full-Rigged  Ship 

A  three-masted  vessel  (foremast,  mainmast  and  miz- 
zenmast)  each  mast  is  fitted  with  a  topmast,  top-gallant- 
mast  and  royalmast,  all  are  square-rigged,  i.e.,  rigged  with 
yards  and  square  sails.     (See  Fig.  loi.) 

Four-Masted  Ships 
These  vessels  have  either  one,  two  or  three  of  their 
masts,  square-rigged,  and  those  masts  not  square-rigged 
are  fitted  with  a  topmast  only,  and  carry  gaff-sails,  like 
a  barkentine,  the  three  foremost  masts  are  named  like 
those  in  a  three-masted  ship  (foremast,  mainmast,  miz- 
zenmast)  and  the  hindmost  is  called  a  jigger-mast. 

Ship  Sails  (Ship  Rig) 


1. 

Flying  jib. 

8. 

Royal   studdingsail. 

2. 

Standing  jib  or  outer  jib. 

9. 

Fore-sail  or  fore  course. 

3. 

Inner   or  middle  jib. 

10. 

Lower-fore  topsail. 

4. 

Fore   topmast   staysail. 

11. 

Upper-fore  topsail. 

5. 

Lower   studdingsail. 

12. 

Lower-fore    topgallantsail. 

6. 

Topmast  studdingsail. 

IS. 

Upper-fore   topgallantsail. 

7. 

Topgallant  studdingsail. 

14. 

Fore  royal. 

15. 

Fore  skysail. 

24. 

Cross-jack. 

16. 

Mainsail  or  main   course. 

25. 

Lower-main  topsail. 

17. 

Lower-main  topsail. 

26. 

Upper-mizzen  topsail. 

18. 

Upper-main  topsail. 

27. 

Lower-mizzen  topgallantsail 

19. 

Lower-main  topgallantsail. 

28. 

Upper-mizzen   topgallantsail 

20. 

Upper-main    topgallantsail. 

29. 

Mizzen   royal. 

21. 

Main  royal. 

30. 

Mizzen   skysail. 

22. 

Main    skysail. 

31. 

Spanker. 

23. 

Moonsail. 

1.  Main   staysail. 

2.  Main  topmast  staysail. 

3.  Middle  staysail. 

4.  Main  topgallant  staysail. 

5.  Main  royal  staysail. 


Fig.  102.     Staysails 

Ship  (Staysails) 

6.     Mizzen  staysail. 


Mizzen  topmast  staysail. 
Mizzen   topgallant  staysail. 
Mizzen  royal   staysail. 


1 2b.     Sails  of  a  Barque 
Fig.  103  is  an  illustration  of  a  barque,  her  sails  being 
numbered   for   identification.     The   name   of   each   sail, 
with  identifying  number  against  it,  is  listed  below. 

Barque;  Bark  (Sails) 
A  three-masted  vessel,  (foremast,  mainmast  and  miz- 
zenmast)  the  two  foremost  masts  are  square-rigged,  as 
in  a  ship,  the  after  or  mizzenmast  has  no  yards,  being 
fitted  with  a  topmast  only,  and  carries  a  gaff-sail  (called 
the  spanker)  and  a  gaff-topsail.     (See  Fig.  103.) 


Fig.  103.     Barque 


124 

1.  Flying  jib. 

2.  Jib. 

3.  Fore  topmast  staysail. 

4.  Fore-sail. 

6,  Lower-top   topsail. 

6.  Upper-top   topsail. 

7.  Fore  topgallant  sail. 

8.  Fore  royal. 

9.  Main  topmast  staysail. 

10.  Middle  staysail. 

11.  Main    topgallant   staysail. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


12.  Main  royal  staysail. 

13.  Main  sail. 

14.  Lower-main    topsail. 

15.  Upper-main  topsail. 

16.  Main  topgallant  sail. 

17.  Main  royal. 

18.  Mizzen  staysail. 

19.  ^fizzen  topmast  staysail. 

20.  Spanker. 

21.  Gaff-topsail. 


I2C.     Sails  of  a  Barkentine 

Fig.  104  is  an  illustration  of  a  barkentine,  her  sails 

being  numbered   for  identification.     The  name  of  each 

sail  with  identifying  number  against  it,  is  listed  below. 

(No.  i-io  same  as  on  bark.  No.  13-16  as  on  schooner.) 

Barkentine 
A  three-masted  vessel,  ( foremast,  mainmast  and  miz- 
zenmast)  the  foremast  only  is  square-rigged,  the  main 
and  mizzen  mast  are  fitted  with  topmasts,  and  carry  gaff- 
sails  and  gaff-topsails. 


Fig.   105.     Brig 


Brigantine 


A  two-masted  vessel  (foremast  and  mainmast).  The 
foremast  is  square-rigged,  and  the  after  or  mainmast 
(of  a  greater  length  than  the  foremast)  carries  a  boom- 


1. 

Flying  jib. 

8. 

Royal. 

2. 

Jib. 

9. 

Main  topmast  staysail. 

ing 

a  gaff-topsail.     (See  Fig. 

106.) 

3. 

Fore-topmast    staysail. 

10. 

Middle   staysail. 

* 

Foresail. 

13. 

Main  sail. 

8. 

Flying-jib. 

16.     Royal. 

6. 

Lower  topsail. 

11. 

Main  gaff  topsail. 

9. 

Outer  jib  or  main  jib. 

17.     Main  staysail. 

6. 

Upper  topsail. 

15. 

Mizzen  or  spanker. 

10. 

Inner  jib. 

18.     Middle  staysail. 

7. 

Top  gallantsail. 

16. 

Mizzen  topsail. 

^-^._  1 

11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 

Fore  topmast  staysail. 
Fore-sail. 
Lower    topsail. 
Upper  topsail. 
Topgallant  sail. 

19.  Main  topmast  staysail. 

20.  Main  topgallant  staysail 

21.  Main  sail. 

22.  Gaff   topsail. 

Fig-  104.     Barkentine 

I2d.     Sails  of  a  Brig 
Fig.  105  is  an  illustration  of  a  brig,  her  sails  being 
numbered  for  identification.     The  name  of  each  sail,  with 
identifying  number  against  it,  is  listed  below. 

Brig 

A  two-masted  vessel,  (foremast  and  mainmast), 
square-rigged,  i.e.,  exactly  as  the  two  forerpost  masts 
of  a  full-rigged  ship  or  a  barque. 


8. 

Flying  jib. 

9. 

Outer  jib. 

10. 

Inner  jib. 

11. 

Fore  sail. 

18. 

Fore    topsail. 

13. 

Fore    topgallantsail 

14. 

Fore  royal. 

16. 

Main   staysail. 

16. 

Main  topmast  staysail. 

17. 

Main  topgallant  staysail 

18. 

Main  sail. 

19. 

Main  topsail. 

20. 

Main  topgallant  sail. 

21. 

Main    royal. 

22. 

Spanker. 

i2e.     Sails  of  a  Brigantine 
Fig.  106  is  an  illustration  of  a  brigantine,  her  sails 
being  numbered  for  identification.  The  name  of  each  sail, 
with  identification  number  against  it,  is  listed  below. 


Fig.   106.     Brigantine 

I2f.     Sails  of  a  Topsail  Schooner 
Fig.  107  is  an  illustration  of  a  topsail  schooner,  her 
sails  being  numbered   for  identification.     The  name  of 
each  sail,  with  identifying  number  against  it,  is  listed 
below. 

Topsail  Schooner 
A  two-masted  vessel  (foremast  and  mainmast)  with 
long  lower  masts.  The  foremast  is  fitted  with  yards  and 
square  sails,  which  are  lighter  than  those  of  a  brigantine, 
and  carrying  a  loose  square  foresail  (only  used  when 
sailing  before  the  wind)  the  main-  or  after  mast  is  rigged 
like  the  after  mast  in  a  brigantine.     (See  Fig.  107.^ 


1.  Flying   jib. 

2.  Outer  jib. 

3.  Inner   jib. 

4.  Fore  topmast  staysail. 
6.  Fore  sail. 


6.  Fore  topsaiL 

7.  Upper   fore  topsail. 

8.  Main  tOf>mast  staysail. 

9.  Main  sail. 

10.  Main  gaff  topsail. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


123 


Fig.  107.     Topsail  Scbooner 

Three-Masted  Topsail  Schooner 

A  three-masted  vessel  (foremast,  mainmast  and  miz- 

zenmast).     The  foremast  is  rigged  like  the  foremast  in 

a  topsail-schooner  and  the  two  after  masts  are  fitted  with 

boom  sails  and  gaff-topsails,  like  those  of  a  barkentine. 

i2g.     Sails  of  a  Fore-and-Aft  Schooner 
Fig.  108  is  an  illustration  of  a  fore-and-aft  schooner, 
her  sails  being  numbered  for  identification.     The  name  of 
each  sail,  with  identifying  number  against  it,  is  listed 
below. 

Schooner 

A  name  applied  to  vessels  of  'fore-and-aft  rig  of 
various  sizes.  Schooners  have  two  or  more  long  lower 
masts  without  tops,  and  are  sometimes  fitted  with  light 
square  topsails,  especially  at  the  fore;  but  these  are  giv- 
ing way  to  the  fore-and-aft  gaff  topsails,  which  are  better 
adapted  to  the  American  coast. 

Some  of  the  more  modern  schooners  measure  2,000 
and  3,000  tons,  and  carry  six  and  seven  masts.  (See 
Fig.  108.) 


Fig.  108.     Fore-and-Aft  Scbooner 


13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 


Plying  jib. 
Jib. 

Inner  jib. 
Staysail. 
Pore- sail. 


18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 


Fore  gaff  topsail. 

Main  sail. 

Main  gaiT  topsail. 

Mizzen. 

Mizzen-gaff  topsail. 


i2h.    Scow 


Scows  are  built  with  flat  bottoms  and  square  bilges, 
but  some  of  them  have  the  ordinary  schooner  bow.  They 
are  fitted  with  one,  two,  and  three  masts,  and  are  called 
scow-sloop  or  scow-schooner,  according  to  the  rig  they 
carry.  Some  of  them  carry  bowsprits.  The  distinctive 
line  between  the  scow  and  regular-built  schooner  is,  in 
the  case  of  some  large  vessels,  quite  obscure,  but  would 
seem  to  be  determined  by  the  shape  of  the  bilge ;  the  scow 
having  in  all  cases  the  angular  bilge  instead  of  the  curve 
( futtock)  bilge  of  the  ordinary  vessel. 

I2i.     Cat 

A  rig  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Brazilian  cata- 
maran that  allows  of  one  sail  only,  an  enormous  fore- 
'  and-aft  mainsail  spread  by  a  boom  and  gaff  and  hoisted 
to  the  one  mast  stepped  near  the  stem.  The  cat  rig  is 
much  employed  on  Long  Island  Sound  for  small  coasting 
and  fishing  vessels.  It  is  also  a  favorite  rig  for  pleasure 
vessels,  being  easily  handled,  but  is  not  suited  to  a  heavy 
sea  and  rough  weather.     (See  Fig.  109.) 


Fig.   109.     Cat 


The  scow  is  a  vessel  used  in  the  shoal  waters  of  nearly 
all  the  States,  but  principally  on  the  lakes. 


I2J.      YaVV^L 

Resembles  the  cutter  rig,  except  that  it  has  a  jigger- 


126 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.   110.     Yawl 

mast  at  the  stern,  which  carries  a  small  lug-sail,  the  main 
boom  traversing  just  clear  of  it.     (See  Fig.  no.) 

12k.    Sloop 

The  sloop  is  a  vessel  with  only  one  mast,  and  a  bow- 
sprit carrying  a  fore-and-aft  mainsail  and  jib,  which, 
being  set  on  the  forestay,  is  called  the  foresail.  The 
sloop  is  one  of  the  oldest  styles  of  vessel  known  to  the 
trade  of  this  country,  and  is  (with  some  local  variations 
in  the  cut  of  sails)  a  rig  that  is  more  or  less  employed  in 
the  commerce  of  the  entire  globe.     (See  Fig.  in.) 


Pig.  111.     Sloop 


12I.     Cutter 


The  cutter  carries  a  fore-and-aft  mainsail,  stay  fore- 
sail, flying  jib,  and  topsail.  Large  cutters,  400  to  500 
tons,  have  been  constructed  for  naval  use  and  made  to 
carry  yards  with  every  sail  that  can  be  set  on  one  mast, 
even  to  sky  sails,  moon-rakers,  star-gazers,  etc.  The 
modern  cutter-yacht  generally  carries  a  flying  gafif  top- 
sail. The  name  cutter  applies  as  much  to  the  sharp  build 
of  the  vessel's  hull  as  to  the  particular  rig.  (See  Fig. 
112.) 


Fig.   112.     Cutter 

12m.  Lugger 
Luggers  are  vessels  generally  with  one  mast  (though 
sometimes  two  or  three),  having  quadrilateral  or  four- 
cornered  fore-and-aft  sails  bent  to  a  hoisting  yard,  the 
luff  being  about  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  after  leech. 
The  French  chasse-maree  or  lugger,  used  for  fishing  and 


Fig.  113.     Lug-Salls 

coasting  purposes,  carries  two  or  three  masts  and  is  of 
200  to  300  tons  capacity.  In  this  country  the  lugger  is 
generally  a  small  vessel  with  one  mast,  used  for  the  oyster 
trade  on  the  Mississippi  River  and  adjacent  waters. 
(See  Fig.  113.) 


Fig.   114.     Lateen-Sall 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


127 


i2n.    Lateen 
The  lateen  rig  is  similar  to  the  lug  rig,  excepting  that 
the  sail  is  triangular,  a  long  yard  which  hoists  obliquely 
to  a  stout  mast  forming  the  luff. 


Sail 


-^  Spkit -  Sails    - 

The  lateen  rig  is  much  used  by  small  craft  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  some  of  the  larger  size  which  have 
more  than  one  mast.  The  sails  brail  up  in  case  of  need. 
(See  Fig.  114.) 


Sliding   Gunter-^ 


Parts  and  Particulars  of  Sails  (Figs.  115,  116,  117) 


Sail 


bolt  rope   of   a  —   (Rope 
sewed  around  a  sail 
bonnet    of    a — (A    remov- 
able portion  of  a  sail) 
bunt  of  a  square  —  {when 
furled) 

clew  or  clue  of  a  —  9 
spectacle  clew,  iron  clew  of 
a  —  pa 

clew-rope  of  a  — 
cloth  of  a —  IS 
cover  of  a  — (Canvas  cover 
put  over  furled  sail  to  pro- 
tect them  from  damage) 
cringle  of  a —  12 
earing  of  a  {square) —  14 


earing     cringle     of     a 
(square) — 13 
earing     thimble     of     a 
{square)  —  (Thimble 
worked  into  earing) 
eyelet-holes  in  a  —  16 
foot  of  a  —  6 
foot-band  of  a  —  (Band 
along  foot) 
foot-rope  of  a  —  6a 
girth-band  of  a — 18 
grommets       {for       eyelet 
holes)    of    a — (Brass    or 
sewed     protection     around 
eyelet  holes) 

head  of  a  {square  or  gaff) 
—  I 


head  of  a  {triangular) —  ib 
head-rope  of  a  {square)  — 
la 

head-rope  of  a  {gaff) —  ic 
head-rope,    stay-rope   of    a 
{triangular) —  10 
hoist  of  a  —  25 
lacing  of  a  —  (Line  used  to 
lace  sail  to  gaff  or  boom) 
leech  of  a   {square)  —  8 
after  leech  of  a   {triangu- 
lar or  trapezoidal) — 20 
fore-leech  or  luff  of  a  {tri- 
angular   or   trapezoidal) — • 
{fixed  to,  or  hoisted  on  a 
mast)  — •  19b 

fore-leech,  stay  or  luff  of 
a  {triangular)  —  {hoisted 
on  a  stay)  —  ipd 
leech-lining  of  a  {square) 
leech-rope  of  a  {square) 
—  8a 

after  leech-rope  of  a  {tri- 
angular or  trapezoidal) — 
20a 


fore-leech    rope,    mastrope 
of    a    {trapezoidal   or   tri- 
angular) —  {fixed     to,     or 
hoisted,  on  a  mast) 
middle  band,  belly  band  of 
a   {top)— 5 
peak  of  a  {gaff) — 22 
tpef  in  a  —  (Distance  be- 
tween   each    set    of    reef 
points) 
balance  reef  in  a  {gaff)  — 

24 

reef  band  of  a  —  3 

reef  cringle  of  a  —  12 

reef  earing  of  a   {square) 

—  14 

reef  points  of  a  —  4 

reef-tackle-cringle  of  a — 11 

reef-tackle   piece    or   patch 

of  a —  ID 

seam  of  a  —  15a 

stopper     or      roband      {to 

fasten  a  sail  to  a  jackstay 

or  to  a  hank) 

tack   of  a   {trapezoidal   or 

triangular)  — 21 

throat  or  neck  of  a  {gaff) 

—  23 


Fig.  116 


128 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Foot  -rope  ^  **- 
rig.  116 


f3 


frfirtju;  -crut^ 


~JUtf-av}^Us 


Raf-taJiU'avigU 


■R  ecf-toi:  hhixmigU. 


rig.  117 


Chapter  XIII 

Rigging 


Rigging  is  the  name  given  to  all  ropes  on  a  vessel 
employed  to  support  the  masts,  and  raise,  lower  or  fasten 
the  sails.  The  rigging  of  a  vessel  is  divided  into  two 
classes,  one  class  comprising  all  standing,  or  stationary 
rigging,  and  the  other  all  running  or  movable  rigging. 

13a.     Standing  Rigging  Described 

The  standing  rigging  of  a  vessel  is  usually  of  iron 
and  steel  wire  rope  made  of  strands  of  wire  laid  around 
a  hemp  core,  the  number  of  strands,  varying  from  7  to 
19,  depending  upon  service  rope  is  put  to. 

On    the   accompanying   tables    I    give   properties    of 

TABLES  OF  WIRE  ROPES.     13A 

WEIGHT,  STRENGTH,  ETC.,  OF  EXTRA  STRONG  CRUCIBLE 
CAST-STEEL  ROPE 


TABLE  13B 
WEIGHT,  STRENGTH,  ETC.,  OF  STAND.\RD  WIRE  ROPE 
Composed  of  Six  Strands  and  a  Hemp  Center,  Nineteen  Wires  to  the 
Strand. 

Swedish  Iron 


Composed  of 

six  strands  am 

a  hemp  center,  nineteen  wires  to  the  strand 

Approximate 

Approximate 

Allowable 

Diameter 

Circumference 

Weight  per 

Breaking  Strains 

Working  Strains 

in  Inches 

in  Inches 

Foot  in  Pounds 

in  Tons  of 
2000  Pounds 

in  Tons  of 
2000  Pounds 

2j< 

8^ 

"■95 

266 

53 

2K 

7^ 

985 

222 

45 

2% 

TA 

8.00 

182 

36.4 

2 

6K 

6.30 

144 

28.8 

iH 

s'A 

4-85 

112 

22.4 

iH 

s 

415 

97 

19.4 

I'A 

4K 

3-55 

84 

16.8 

iH 

4'/i 

3.00 

72 

14.4 

iX 

4 

2-45 

58 

11.60 

iH 

3'/2 

2.00 

49 

9.80 

1 

3 

1.58 

39 

7.80 

H 

2^ 

1 .20 

30 

6.00 

H 

2% 

0.89 

22 

4.40 

H 

2 

0.62 

iS-8 

316 

■       % 

ij< 

0.50 

12.7 

2-54 

H 

i>^ 

0-39 

10. 1 

2.02 

'-16 

iX 

0.30 

7.8 

1.56 

H 

^yi 

0.  22 

5.78 

115 

^6 

I 

015 

40s 

0.81 

H 

^ 

O.IO 

2.70 

0-54 

SEVEN  WIRES  TO  THE  STRAND 


IK 

4H 

3-55 

79 

15.8 

I^ 

4X 

3.00 

68 

13-6 

r'A 

4 

2.45 

56 

II. 2 

iH 

^y^ 

2.00 

46 

9.20 

I 

3 

1.58 

37 

7.40 

H 

2H 

1.20 

28 

5 .60 

H 

2X 

0.89 

21 

4.20 

'Hi 

2H 

0.7s 

18.4 

3.68 

H 

2 

0.62 

iS-i 

3.02 

% 

iH 

0.50 

12.3 

2,46 

H 

iK 

0-39 

9.70 

1.94 

¥6 

iK 

0.30 

7-5° 

I-50 

H 

lA 

0.22 

558 

1. 11 

'46 

I 

oiS 

3-88 

0.77 

'-6 

H 

O.I2S 

3.22 

0.64 

Approximate 

Approximate 

Allowable 

Diameter 

Circumference 

Weight  per 

Breaking  Strain 

Working  Strain 

in  Inche« 

in  Inches 

Foot  in  Pounds 

in  Tons  of 

in  Tons  of 

2000  Pounds 

2000  Pounds 

2H 

?.H 

II  95 

114 

22.8 

2K 

iH 

985 

95 

18.9 

2% 

lA 

8.00 

78 

15.60 

2 

6'A 

6.30 

62 

12.40 

I^ 

S'A 

4-8s 

48 

9.60 

\H. 

5 

4-15 

42 

8.40 

iK 

4^ 

3-55 

36 

7.20 

xH 

4X 

3.00 

31 

6.20 

1% 

4 

2-45 

25 

S.oo 

I'A 

3K 

2.00 

21 

4. 20 

I 

3 

1.58 

17 

3-40 

H 

2H 

1.20 

13 

2.60 

H 

2% 

0.89 

9-7 

1.94 

H 

2 

0.62 

6 

8 

1.36 

% 

iH 

0.50 

5 

5 

1. 10 

% 

i>^ 

0-39 

4 

4 

0.88 

¥6 

iX 

0.30 

3 

4 

0.68 

H 

lA 

0.  22 

2 

5 

0.50 

'46 

I 

OIS 

I 

7 

0-34 

Va 

K 

0. 10 

I 

2 

0.24 

CAST  STEEL 


2A 

8^^ 

11-95 

228 

45-6 

2K 

lA 

985 

190 

37-9 

2A 

lA 

8.00 

156 

31.2 

2 

6% 

6.30 

124 

24.8 

iK 

s'A 

4-85 

96 

19.2 

iH 

5 

4-15 

84 

16.8 

I'A 

aH 

3-55 

72 

14.4 

iH 

4X 

3.00 

62 

12.4 

iX 

4 

2.45 

50 

10. 0 

xA 

3A 

2.00 

42 

8.40 

I 

3 

1.58 

34 

6.80 

A 

2H 

1.20 

26 

5.20 

H     . 

2V, 

0.89 

19.4 

3.88 

H 

2 

0.62 

13-6 

2.72 

% 

iK 

0.50 

II. 0 

2.20 

% 

xA 

0-39 

8.8 

1.76 

Tfg 

lA 

0.30 

6.8 

1.36 

H 

lA 

0.22 

5-0 

1. 00 

%, 

I 

0.15 

3-4 

0.68 

X 

H 

O.IO 

2-4 

0.48 

various  standard  sizes  of  iron  wire  and  steel  wire  rope. 
The  size  of  a  wire  rope  is  its  diameter,  or  circumference, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  the  size  required  for  each  piece 
of  standing  rigging  depends  upon  working  strain  that 
must  be  withstood,  which  of  course  varies  with  size, 
type  of  vessel,  rig,  and  amount  of  sail  that  will  be  carried. 

13b.     Fastening  of  Standing  Rigging 
One  end  of  each  piece  of  standing  rigging  is  attached 


I30 


WOODEN      SHIP -BUILDING 


Fig.   118.     Chain  Plates  and  Channels 

to  one  of  the  spars  and  the  other  end  to  one  of  the  chain 
plates,  pad-eyes,  or  eyebohs  fastened  to  hull,  or  to  another 
spar. 

On  Fig.  ii8  are  shown  details  of  chain  plate  con- 
struction and  method  of  fastening  chain  plates  to  hull 
and  rigging  to  chain  plates. 

No.  I  on  the  illustration  is  the  chain  plate  which  is 
attached  to  hull  by  chain  plate  bolt  2  and  preventer 
bolt  3 ;  4  is  a  preventer  plate,  5  the  channel  over  which 
the  chain  plate  is  led,  6  the  dead-eye  through  which  the 
tightening  lanyard  is  led,  and  7  is  the  strand  of  rigging 
attached  to  chain  plate. 

The  other  part  of  illustration  shows  profile  view  of 
main  rigging  chain  plates.  Note  that  the  one  channel  ex- 
tends across  all  chain  plates  of  each  set  of  rigging. 

13c.  Describing  the  Channels 
A  channel  is  an  assemblage  of  oak  planks  lying  hori- 
zontally and  projecting  outwards  from  side  of  ship.  They 
are  placed  near  to  each  mast,  with  their  fore  ends  slightly 
ahead  of  center  of  mast,  and  are  always  sufficiently  long 
to  receive  and  support  as  many  chain  plates  as  necessary. 
Channels  are  securely  bolted  to  frames  and  are  fre- 
quently shod  with  iron. 

13d.  Chain  Plates  and  Their  Fastenings 
Chain  plates  are  made  of  iron  or  steel  and  are  usually 
about  3  or  4  inches  broad  and  from  i  to  i^  inches 
thick  on  ships  of  1,500  tons.  Chain  plates  are  fastened 
to  hull  with  bolts  that  pass  through  planking,  frame, 
ceiling,  and  are  securely  riveted  in  heavy  clinch  rings 
inside  hull.  The  main  and  fore  chain  plates  usually 
have  a  preventer  plate  and  bolt  as  an  additional  fastening. 
On  Fig.  1 18  the  chain  plate  fastenings  are  clearly  shown. 
Dead-eyes,  or  turnbuckles,  are  fastened  to  the  upper 
end  of  each  chain  plate.  Turnbuckles  are  fastened  to 
the  chain  plates  with  an  iron  strap  that  passes  around 
the  dead-eye  and  is  fastened  to  chain  plate  with  a  bolt 
or  link. 


Turnbuckles  are  fastened  to  chain  plates  with  a  bolt 
that  passes  through  shackle  of  turnbuckle  and  hole  in 
upper  end  of  chain  plate. 

i3e.     Method  of  Fastening  Standing  Rigging  to 
Spars,  and  to  Hull 

The  method  of  fastening  standing  rigging  to  spars 
is  by  splicing  to  eyes  on  bands,  by  splicing  around  the 
spar,  or  by  seizing  the  end ;  and  the  method  of  fastening 
to  hull  is  by  splicing  to  turnbuckles  or  dead-eyes,  by 
splicing  around  thimbles  that  are  placed  in  eyebolts  and 
pad-eyes,  and  by  seizing.  A  large  portion  of  standing 
'■igging  is  "set  up"  or  tautened  by  means  of  either  turn- 
buckles, dead-eyes  or  lanyards. 

All  standing  rigging  must  be  set  taut  and  securely 
fastened. 

i3f.     List  of  a  Ship's  Standing  Rigging 

On  the  following  list  are  given  the  names  of  the 
principal  pieces  of  a  ship's  standing  rigging,  and  im- 
mediately below  the  list  is  an  illustration,  on  which  each 
piece  of  rigging  is  marked  for  identification.  Bear  in 
mind  that  fore  and  main  masts  of  barks  and  brigs,  and 
the  foremast  of  a  barkentine  and  a  brigantine  have  stand- 
ing rigging  that  is  very  similar  to  a  ship's. 

List  of  a  Ship's  Standing  Rigging  Shown  on  Fig.  119 

Main    topgallant    rigging. 

Mizzeii  ^rigging. 

Mizzen   topmast   rigging. 

Mizzen   topgallant   rigging. 

Fore   topmast   backstays. 

Fore    topgallant    backstays. 

Fore  royal  and  skysail  back- 
stays. 

Main   topmast   backstays. 

Main   topgallant   backstays. 

Main  royal  and  skysail  back- 
stays. 

Mizzen  topmast  backstays. 

Mizzen   topgallant  backstays. 

Mizzen  royal  and  skysail  back- 
stays. 

Bobstays. 

Jib   boom   martingale  stay. 

Flying  jib  boom  martingale 
stay. 

Martingale  guys   or  back  ropes. 

Jib  flying  jib  boom  guys. 


1. 

Fore    skysail    stay. 

23. 

2. 

Fore  royal  stay. 

24. 

3. 

Flying    jib    stay. 

25. 

4. 

Fore    topgallant    stay. 

26. 

0. 

Jib    stay. 

27. 

6. 

Fore  topmast   stay. 

28. 

7. 

Fore  stay. 

29. 

8. 

Main    stay. 

9. 

Main    topmast   stay. 

30. 

10. 

Main  topgallant  stay. 

31. 

11. 

Main   royal   stay. 

32. 

12. 

Main   skysail    stay. 

13. 

Mizzen    stay. 

33. 

14. 

Mizzen   topmast  stay. 

34. 

15. 

Mizzen    topgallant   stay. 

35. 

16. 

Mizzen   royal   stay. 

17. 

Mizzen  skysail  stay 

36. 

18. 

Fore  rigging. 

37. 

19. 

Fore  topmast  rigging. 

38. 

20. 

Fore     topgallant     rigging. 

81. 

Main    rigging. 

39. 

22. 

Main  topmast  rigging. 

40. 

rig.   119.      Ship's   standing  Elgglng 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


131 


i3g.     Standing  Rigging 
Below  is  listed  in  alphabetical  order  the  names  of  each  piece  of  standing  rigging  used  on  sa:iling  vessels. 


Backstay  — (Stays  that  support 
topmast,  topgallant  and 
royal  masts  from  aft. 
They  reach  from  heads  of 
their  respective  masts  to 
the  channels  at  each  side 
of  ship.) 
preventer  — 

fore  royal  —  s  29,  Fig.  119 
main  royal  —  s  32,  Fig. 
119 

mizzen  royal  —  s  35,  Fig. 
119 

fore  skysail  —  s  29,  Fig. 
119 

main  skysail  —  s  32,  Fig. 
119 

mizzen  skysail  —  s  — -35, 
Fig.  119 
standing  — 

fore  topgallant  —  s  —  28, 
Fig.  119 

main  topgallant  —  s  — -31, 
Fig.   119 

mizzen  topgallant  —  s  — 
34,  Fig.  119 

topmast  —  s  {of  a  square- 
rigged  mast)  —  20,  Fig. 
120 

fore  topmast  —  s  (of  a 
square-rigged  mast)  —  27, 
Fig.  119 

Backstays,  fore  topmast  —  s 
(.of  a  fore  and  aft 
schooner) 

main  topmast  —  s  (of  a 
ship,  barque  or  brig)  — 
30,  Fig.  119 

main  topniast  —  s  (of  a 
barquentine,  brigantine  or 
schooner) 

mizzen  topmast  —  s  (of  a 
ship)  —  33,  Fig.  119 
mizzen  topmast  —  s  (of  a 
barque,      barquentine      or 
three-masted  schooner) 
weather  —  s 

Bobstay  (usually  made  of 
chain)  —  36,  Fig.   119 

Flemish-horse  —  31,  Fig.  120 

Foot  rope's  are  fitted  to  all 
yards  (See  Rigged  Fore- 
mast)   Fig.    120* 

Foot  ropes 

cross-jack  — ;  cross-jack 
yard  — 

fore  — ;  fore  yard  —  28, 
Fig.  120 


Foot  ropes 

main  — ;  main  yard  — 

topsail  — ;  topsail  yard  — 

29,  Fig.  120 

topgallant  —    ;    topgallant 

yard  — 

royal  — ;   royal  yard  — 

skysail  — ;  skysail  yard  — 

jib  boom  — 

flying  jib  boom  — 

stirrup  in  a  —  30,  Fig.  120 

Guy ;  Back-rope 
boom  — 
davit  — 
jib  boom  — 
flying  jib  boom  — 
martingale  — 
lower  studdingsail  boom — 

Man-rope;    Ridge-rope    of    the 
bowsprit ;   Bowsprit-horse 

Martingale-stay ;    Martingale 
jib  boom  — 
flying  jib  boom  — 

Pendant 

boom  guy  — 
brace  — 
fish  tackle  — 
jib  sheet  — 
mast  head  — 
staysail  sheet  — 
topmast  head  — 

Puttock-rigging ;    Puttock- 
shrouds 
fore  — 
main  — 

mizzen  —  (of  a  ship) 
mizzen    —    (of   a    barque, 
barquentine        or       three- 
masted  schooner) 

Puttock-rigging,     fore     topgal- 
lant —  23,  Fig.  120 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen  topgallant  — 

Ratline  —  16,  Fig.  120 

Rigging 

fore  — ;  fore  lower  —  18, 
Fig.  119 

main  — ;  main  lower  — 
21,   Fig.   119 

mizzen  —  ;  mizzen  lower 
(of  a  ship)  —  24,  Fig.  119 
mizzen  —  (of  a  barque, 
barquentine  or  three- 
masted  schooner) 


Rigging 

topmast  —  (of  a  square- 
rigged  mast)  — •  22,  Fig. 
120 

fore  topmast  —  (of  a 
square-rigged  mast)  —  ig. 
Fig.    119 

fore  topmast  —  (of  a  top- 
mast not  fitted  with  any 
yards) 

main  topmast  —  (of  a 
square-rigged  mast)  — 
22,  Fig.  119 

main  topmast  —  (of  a 
topmast  not  fitted  with  any 
yards) 

mizzen  topmast  —  (of  a 
ship)  —  25,  Fig.  119 
mizzen  topmast  —  (of  a 
barque,  barquentine  or 
three-masted  schooner) 
fore  topgallant  —  20,  Fig. 
119 

main  topgallant  —  23,  Fig. 
119 

mizzen  topgallant  —  26, 
Fig.   119 

lower  mast  —  (all  the 
standing  rigging  of  a  lower 
mast,  including  stay  and 
mast-head  pendants) 
topmast  —  (all  the  stand- 
ing rigging  of  a  topmast, 
including  backstays  and 
stay) 

topgallant  mast  —  (all  the 
standing  rigging  of  a  top- 
gallant-mast, including 
backstays  and  stay) 

Shroud    (*) 

bowsprit  — 
fore  lower  —  s 
foremost  — ;  Swifter 
futtock  —  s 
lower  — •  s 
main  —  s 

mizzen  —  s   (of  a  ship) 
mizzen  —  s   (of  a  barque, 
barquentine       or       three- 
masted  schooner) 
preventer  — 
topgallant  • —  s 
topmast  —  s 

(*)  A  shroud  is  any  one  of  the 
ropes — hemp  or  wire — of  which  the 
"rigging",  as  lower-rigging,  topmast- 
rigging,  topgallant  rigging,  etc.,  is 
formed.  The  bowsprit,  futtock, 
funnel-shrouds,  etc.,  are  often  made 
of  chain  and  sometimes  of  bar-iron. 


*Fig.  120  and  138  are  alike. 


132 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Stay 


bumpkin  —  ;  bumpkin- 
shroud 

fore  —  7,  Fig.  119 
fore  —  (,of  a  schooner, 
cutter,  etc.) 
jib  —  5,  Fig.  119 
flying- jib  —  3,  Fig.  119 
inner-jib —  ;  middle  jib  — 
Fig.    119 

jumping  —   ;  pitching  — 
main  —  8,  Fig.  119 
middle  staysail  —  Fig.  119 
mizzen  —    {of  a  ship)   — 
13,  Fig.  119 

mizzen  —  (of  a  barque, 
barquentine  or  three- 
masted  schooner) 


Stay 


Stay 


royal  — 

fore  royal  —  2,  Fig.  119 

main  royal  —  11,  Fig.  119 

mizzen    royal   —    16,    Fig. 

119 

skysail  —  17,  Fig.  119 

fore  skysail  —  i,  Fig.  119 

main  skysail  —  12,  Fig.  119 

mizzen  skysail  —   17,   Fig. 

119 

spring  — 

fore   topgallant  — •  4,   Fig. 

119 

main  topgallant  —  10,  Fig. 

119 

mizzen    topgallant    —     15, 

Fig.  119 


fore    topmast    —     {of    a 

square-rigged  mast)   —  6, 

Fig.  119 

fore     topmast    —     {of    a 

topmast     not     fitted    with 

any  yards) 

main    topmast    —     (of    a 

square-rigged  mast)   —  9, 

Fig.    119 

main    topmast    —    (of    a 

topmast  not  fitted  with  any 

yards) 

mizzen    topmast   —    (of   a 

ship)  —  14,  Fig.  119 

mizzen   topmast   —    (of   a 

barque,      barquentine      or 

three-masted  schooner) 


(ilhlf  latfi  Rof/e  Shrnmllaul  Rope     Biiioser  laid  Rope     Flmiish  Rye 


26 


Klark  itkitt 
Hack 


Fig.  121 


i3h.  Running  Rigging 
Running  rigging  is  the  name  applied  to  all  that  por- 
tion of  a  vessel's  rigging  that  is  used  to  set,  furl,  control 
and  handle  the  sails.  It  is  usually  composed  of  manila, 
hemp,  or  sizal,  cordage,  rove  through  blocks  or  over 
sheaves. 


The  rope  used  for  rigging  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  yarns  twisted  together  to  form  strands  and  then  a 
certain  number  of  these  strands  are  twisted  together  to 
form  the  rope. 

Rope  is  named  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
laid  and  its  size  is  determined  by  measuring  diameter,  or 
circumference,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Common   or   plain   laid   rope   is   composed   of   three 


TABLE  13c 

APPROXIMATE  WEIGHT  AND  STRENGTH  OF  MANILA  ROPE 

Manila,  Sisal,  New  Zealand,  and  Jute  ropes,  weigh  (about)  alike. 
Tarred  Hemp  Cordage  will  weigh  (about)  one-fourth  more.  Manila 
is  about  25%  stronger  than  Sisal.  Working  load  about  one-fourth  of 
breaking  strain. 


'lumber  of 

Strength  of 

Circumference 

Diameter 

Weight  of  1000  Feet  and  Inches 

New  Manila  Rope 

in  Inches 

in  Inches 

Feet  in  Pounds       C 

ne  Pound 

in  Pounds 

Fa 

t          Inches 

H 

Va 

23                I 

0 

450 

I 

% 

a           3 

3 

780 

^% 

H 

42                    2 

5 

1000 

iX 

'-1-6 

52                  I 

9 

1280 

iX 

K 

74              1 

I 

1760 

iK 

'-ie 

101 

9 

2400 

2 

H      ■ 

132 

7 

3140 

2K 

K 

167 

6 

3970 

2K 

'% 

207 

S 

4900 

2^ 

}^ 

250 

4 

5900 

3 

I 

297 

3           6 

7000 

i% 

I  Mi 

349 

2         10 

8200 

3'A 

i>i 

40s 

2           4 

9600 

3K 

iX 

465 

2            I 

1 1000 

4 

l5^6 

529 

I          10 

12500 

A'A 

T-H 

597 

I          8 

14000 

A'A 

I'-16 

669 

I          5 

15800 

4K 

iK 

746 

I           4 

17600 

s 

^H 

826 

I           2 

19500 

^% 

IK 

1000 

23700 

6 

I>^ 

1 190 

10 

28000 

(>% 

2 

1291 

9K 

33000 

tyi 

2H 

1397 

8K 

38000 

7 

^y. 

1620 

7   ^ 

44000 

7K 

iH 

i860 

6K 

50000 

8 

2% 

2116 

SK 

60000 

8K 

2H 

2388 

5  ^ 

63000 

9 

2H 

2673 

4A 

67700 

Ia 

3 

2983 

4 

70000 

10 

3% 

3306 

3^ 

80000 

WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


133 


strands  twisted  together,  the  number  of  yarns  in  each 
strand  varying  with  size  of  rope. 

Shroud  laid  rope  has  four  strands,  and  cable  or 
hawser  laid  rope  consists  of  three  strands  laid  up  as  for 
plain  laid  rope,  and  then  three  of  these  three-ply  strands 
laid  up  to  form  the  hawser.  Hawser  laid  rope  is  twisted 
together  left-handed  and,  of  course  has  o  strands  as  ex- 
plained  above. 

There  is  also  a  four-stranded  hawser  laid  rope. 

On  the  accompanying  Table  13C  are  given  particulars 
of  the  most  generally  used  sizes  of  ropes;  on  Fig.  121 
are  shown  illustrations  of  rope,  and  on  Table  13D  names 
of  ropes  and  parts. 

Different  Ropes  Supplied  to  a  Ship 


Breast-fast ;  Breast-rope 
Cable,  spare  — 
Hawser 

steel  — 

wire  —  (used  for  towing) 
Messenger 
Rope 

bolt   —    (rope    used    for 

roping  sails) 

cable  laid  —  24.  Fig.  121 

coil  of  — 

coir  — 

common    laid    — ;    hawser 

laid  —   (see  definition) 

heart  of  a  —  (the  center) 

hemp   —    {Europe)     (rope 

made  of  hemp) 

manila  —    (rope   made  of 

manila) 

mooring  — •  (rope  used  for 

mooring  a  vessel) 

pointed  — ;   point  of   a  — 


Rope 


preventer  — 
relieving  — 
serving  of  a  — 
shroud  laid  —  2 


I.' 12     i2I 


strand  of  a  —  (see  defini- 
tion) 

three-stranded   —  26,    Fig. 
121 

four-stranded    —   25,    Fig. 
121 

tarred  —  (Hemp  rope  that 
has  been  immersed  in  tar) 
whip  of  a  — ■ 
white  or  untarred  —  (rope 
made  of  natural  hemp  or 
manila) 

wire  —  (see  Table  13a) 
steel    wire   —    (see    Table 
13a) 

Tow-line;      Tow-rope       (rope 
used   for  towing) 


24,   Fig.   121 

Running  Rigging  of  a  Ship  (Fig.  122) 


Moonsail  brace. 

Cross-jack  brace. 

Lower-mizzen   topsail   brace. 

Upper-mizzen   topsail    brace. 

I.ower-mizzen    topgallant    brace. 

Upper-mizzen    topgallant   brace. 

Mizzen  royal  brace. 

Mizzen  skysail  brace. 

Fore    buntlines. 

Fore  topsail  buntlines. 

Fore    topgallant   buntline. 

Fore  royal  buntline. 

Main    buntlines. 

Main  topsail   buntlines. 

Main    topgallant   buntline. 

^ain   royal   buntline. 

Cross-jack  buntline. 

Mizzen  topsail  buntlines. 

Mizzen   royal  buntline. 

Spanker  brails. 

Peak  halliards. 


Hg.  122.     SUp — Ennnijig  Rigging 

against  a  number  of  the  items  are  marked  identifying 
numerals  that  correspond  with  similar  numerals  marked 
on  the  running  rigging  illustrations.  By  referring  to  the 
numeral  and  illustration  entered  against  any  item  of 
running  rigging  you  will  learn  its  location  and  the  purpose 
it  is  used  for. 


Names  of  Running  Rigging 
Brace 

—  pendant 


131- 

1.  Flying  jib   sheet.  23. 

2.  Jib  sheet.  2*. 

3.  Middle  jib  sheet.  25. 
A.     Fore  topmast   staysail  sheet.  26. 

5.  Fore    sheet.  27. 

6.  Main   sheet.  28. 

7.  Cross-jack   sheet.  29. 

8.  Spanker  sheet.  30. 

9.  Fore  brace.  31. 

10.  Lower-fore   topsail   brace.  32. 

11.  Upper-fore    topsail    brace.  33. 

12.  Lower-fore   topgallant   bract.  34. 

13.  Upper-fore    topgallant    brace.  3,'). 

14.  Fore   royal   brace.  36. 

15.  Fore  skysail  brace.  37. 

16.  Main    brace.  38. 

17.  Lower-main  topsail  brace.  39, 

18.  Upper-main    topsail    brace.  40. 

19.  Lower-main    topgallant    brace.  42. 

20.  Upper-main    topgallant   brace.  43. 

21.  Main    royal    brace.  44. 

22.  Main   skysail  brace. 

I3j.     Fore-and-Aft  Schooner  Rigging  (Fig.  123) 

23.  Fore  boom  topping  lift.  26.     Fore  peak  halliard. 

24.  Main   boom   topping   lift.  27.     Main  peak  halliard. 
28.     Mizzen    boom    topping    lift.  28.     Mizzen    peak   halliard. 

13k.     Names  of  Running  Rigging 
Below  is  listed  in  alphabetical  order  the  names  of 
principal  pieces  of  running  rigging  used  on  ships,  and 


Bowline 

—  bridle 
cross-jack  — 
fore  — 
lee  — 
The    following   bowlines   are 
seldom    used : 
main  — 
top  — 
fore   top  — 
main  top  — 
mizzen  top  — 
topgallant  — 
fore  topgallant  — 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen  topgallant  — 
weather  — 

Brace 

Cross-jack  —  24,  Fig.   122 

fore  —  9,  Fig.  122 

lee  — 

main  —  16,  Fig.  122 

moon-sail  —  23,  Fig.  122 


preventer  — 

royal    — 

fore  royal  —  14.  F'g-   122 

main  royal  —  21,  Fig.  122 

mizzen     royal  —  29,     Fig. 

122 

skysail  —  30,  Fig.  122 

fore    skysail    —     15,    Fig. 

132 

main  skysail  —  22,  Fig.  122 

mizzen  skysail  — 

studdingsail  boom  — 

topgallant  — 

fore   topgallant  — 

lower    fore    topgallant    — 

12,  Fig.  122 

upper  fore  topgallant  —  13^ 

Fig.    122 

lower  topgallant  — 

main  topgallant  — 

lower    main    topgallant    ^ 

19,  Fig.  122 


Fig.    123.      Fore-and-Aft   Schooner   Blgging 


^34 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Brace 

upper   main    topgallant   — 

20,  Fig.  122 

mizzen  topgallant  — 

lower     mizzen     topgallant 

—  27,  Fig.  122 

upper  mizzen  topgallant  — 

28,   Fig.   122 

upper  topgallant  — 

topsail  — • 

topsail  —  (of  a  schooner) 

fore  topsail  — 

lower    fore    topsail   —    10, 

Fig.   122 

upper    fore   topsail   —    11, 

Fig.   122 

lower  topsail  — 

main  topsail  — 

lower   main   topsail  —   17, 

Fig.    122 

upper   main   topsail   —   18, 

Fig.    122 

mizzen  topsail  — 

lower  mizzen  topsail  —  25, 

Fig.  122 

upper  mizzen  topsail  —  26, 

Fig.  122 

upper  topsail  — 

weather   — 

Brail 

foot  — 

peak  — 

preventer  — 

spanker  —  43,  Fig.  122 

throat  — 

trysail  — 

fore   trysail   — 

main  trysail  — 

Bridle 

Bunt-line 

—  lizard 

cross-jack  —  39,  Fig.  122 

fore  —  31,  Fig.  122 

lower  —  s 

main  —  35,  Fig.  122 

royal  — 

fore  royal  —  34,  Fig.    122 

main  royal  —  38,  Fig.   122 

mizzen    royal    —    42,    Fig. 

122 

topgallant  — 

fore  topgallant  —  33,  Fig. 

122 

main  topgallant  —  37,  Fig. 

122 

mizzen     topgallant    —    41, 

Fig.  122 

topsail  — 

topsail  —  (of  a  schooner) 

fore  topsail  —  32,  Fig.  122 

main  topsail  —  36,  Fig.  122 

mizzen  topsail  —  40,   Fig. 

122 


Cat-back;  Back-rope  of  a  Cat- 
block 

Clew-garnet      —      (a      tackle 
fastened  to  clews  of  main 
and    foresail    for    trussing 
them   to   yard) 
cross-jack  — 
fore  — 
main  — 

Clew-line  or  Clue-line 
royal  — 
fore  royal  — 
main  royal  — 
mizzen  royal  — 
skysail  — 
fore   skysail  — ■ 
main  skysail  — 
mizzen  skysail  — 
topgallant  — • 
fore  topgallant  — • 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen  topgallant  — 
topsail  — 

topsail  —  (of  a  schooner) 
fore   topsail  — ■ 
main  topsail  — ■ 
mizzen   topsail  — 

Downhaul 

gaff-topsail  — 

jib  - 

flying-jib  — 

peak  — • 

fore-staysail  — 

staysail   — ■ 

main  staysail  — 

middle  staysail  — 

mizzen    staysail    —    (of   a 

ship) 

mizzen    staysail    —    (uf   a 

barque,      barquentine      or 

three-masted  schooner) 

main  royal  staysail  — 

mizzen  royal  staysail  — 

fore  top  staysail  — 

main  topgallant  staysail  — 

mizzen    topgallant    staysail 

fore  topmast  staysail  — 
main  topmast  staysail  — 
mizzen  topmast  staysail  — 
(of  a  ship) 

mizzen  topmast  staysail  — 
(of  a  barque,  barquentine 
or  three-masted  schooner) 
studdingsail  — 
fore  lower  studdingsail  — 
main   lower  studdingsail  — 
lower  studdingsail  — 
royal  studdingsail  — 
fore  royal  studdingsail  — 
main  royal  studdingsail  — 
topgallant   studdingsail   — 
fore    topgallant    studding- 
sail  — 

main   topgallant    studding- 
sail    — 


Downhaul,    topmast    studding- 
sail  — 

fore      topmast      studding- 
sail  — 

main     topmast     studding- 
sail  — 

Fall 

cat  — 
purchase  — 
tackle   — 
fish   tackle  — 
top  tackle  — 

Fancy-line 

Halliard 
jib- 
flying  jib  — 

inner  jib  — ;  middle  jib  — 
main-jib   — 
outer  — 
peak  — 

fore  peak  —  26,  Fig.  123 
main  peak  —  27,  Fig.   123 
spanker  or  mizzen  peak  — 
28,  Fig.   123 
peak  —  44,  Fig.   122 
royal  — 
fore  royal  — 
main  royal  — 
mizzen  royal  — 
signal  — ;  ensign  — 
skysail  — 
fore  skysail  — 
main  skysail  — 
mizzen  skysail  — • 
stay  foresail  — • 
staysail  — 
fore  top  staysail  — 
main  staysail  — 
middle  staysail  — 
mizzen    staysail    —    (of   a 
ship) 

mizzen    staysail    —    (of    a 
barque,      barquentine      or 
three-masted   schooner) 
main  royal  staysail  — 
mizzen  royal  staysail  — 
main  topgallant  staysail  — 
mizzen      topgallant      stay- 
sail — 

fore  topmast  staysail  — 
main   topmast   staysail  — 
mizzen   topmast   staysail  — 
(of  a  ship) 

mizzen  topmast  staysail  — 
(of  a  barque,  barquentine 
or  three-masted  schooner) 
studdingsail  — 
fore  lower  studdingsail  — 
fore  lower  studdingsail 
inner  — 

fore   lower   studdingsail 
outer  — 

main  royal  studdingsail  — 
topgallant    studdingsail    — 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


135 


Halliard 

fore    topgallant    studding- 
sail  — 

main    topgallant    studding- 
sail  — 

topmast  studdingsail  — 
fore  topmast  studding- 
sail  — 

main  topmast  studding- 
sail  — 
throat — 

fore-sail   throat  — 
main  throat  — 
spanker    or    mizzen 
throat  — 
topgallant  — 
fore  topgallant  — 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen  topgallant  — 
topsail  — 

topsail  —  {of  a  schooner) 
fore   topsail  — 
main  topsail  — 
mizzen   topsail  — 

Inhaul 

spanker  — 
trysail  — 
fore  trysail  — 
main  trysail  — 

Jib-heel-rope;    Jib-boom-hcel- 
rope 

Leech-line 

cross- jack  — 

fore  —  , 

main  — 

preventer  — 
Lift 

boom  — ;  boom  topping  — 

cross-jack  — 

fore  — 

fore    sail    boom   — ;    fore 

boom  topping  — 

lower  —  26,  V\g,.  120 

lower     studdingsail     boom 

topping  — 

main  — • 

main  boom  — ;  main  boom 

topping  — 

royal  — 

fore  royal  — 

main  royal  — 

mizzen  royal  — 

skysail  — 

fore  skysail  — 

main  skysail  — 

mizzen  skysail  — 

spanker  boom  topping  — • 

mizzen  boom  topping  — 

topgallant  — 

fore  topgallant  — 

main  topgallant  — 

mizzen  topgallant  — 

topsail  —  27,  Fig.  120 

fore  topsail  — 

main  topsail  — 

mizzen  topsail  — 


Outhaul 

spanker  — 

trysail  — 
fore  trysail  — 
main  trysail  — 

Reef-tackle 

cross-jack  — 

fore  — 

main  — 

topsail  — 

topsail  —  {of  a  schooner) 

fore  topsail  — 

main  topsail  — 

mizzen  topsail  — 

Sheet 

boom  fore  sail  — 
brig's  boom  sail  — 
cross-jack  —  7,  Fig.   122 
fore  —  5,  Fig.   122 
head  —  s 
jib  —  2,  Fig.  122 
flying  jib  —  17,  Fig.  122 
inner  jib  — ;  middle  jib  — 
3,  Fig.  122 
lee  — ■ 

main  —  6,  Fig.  122 
moon  sail  — 
preventer  — 
ringtail  — 
royal  — 
fore  royal  — 
main  royal  — 
mizzen   royal  — 
skysail  — 
fore  skysail  — 
main  skysail  — 
mizzen  skysail  — 
spanker  —  8,  Fig.   122 
square  sail  ■ — 
stay   fore  sail  — 
staysail  — 
main  staysail  — ■ 
middle  staysail  — 
mizzen  staysail  —    {of  a 
ship) 

mizzen  staysail  —    {of  a 
barque,      barquentine       or 
three-masted   schooner) 
main  royal  staysail  — 
mizzen  royal  staysail  — 
main  topgallant  staysail  — 
mizzen    topgallant    stay- 
sail — 

fore  topmast  staysail  —  4, 
Fig.   122 

main  topmast  staysail  — 
mizzen  topmast  staysail  — 
{of  a  ship) 

mizzen  topmast  staysail  —    ■ 
{of  a  barque,  barquentine    , 
or  three-masted  schooner) 
storm  sail  ■ — 
studdingsail  — 
fore  lower  studdingsail  — • 
fore   royal  studdingsail   — 
main  royal  studdingsail  — 


Sheet 

fore    topgallant    studding- 
sail  — 

main  topgallant  studding- 
sail  — 

fore  topmast  studding- 
sail  — 

main   topnjast   studding- 
sail  — 
topgallant  — 
fore  topgallant  — 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen  topgallant  — 
topsail  — 

topsail  —  {of  a  schooner) 
fore  topsail  — 
main  topsail  — 
mizzen  topsail  — 
trysail  — 
fore  trysail    - 
main  trysail  — 
weather  — • 

Slab-line 

Span 

Spilling-line 

Tack 

cross-jack  — 
fore  — 
gaff  topsail  — 
jib  - 

flying-jib  — 

inner  jib  — :  middle  jib  — 
main  — 
spanker  — 
stay   fore   sail  — 
staysail  — 
main  staysail  — 
mizzen  staysail  — 
main  royal  staysail  — 
mizzen   royal  staysail  —    • 
main  topgallant  staysail  — 
mizzen    topgallant    stay- 
sail — 

fore  topmast  staysail  — 
main   topmast   staysail  — 
mizzen  topmast  staysail  — 
(of  a  ship) 

mizzen  topmast  staysail  — 
{of  a  barque,  barquentine 
or  three-masted  schooner) 
studdingsail  — 
fore  royal  studdingsail  — 
main  royal  studdingsail  — 
fore  topgallant  studding- 
sail  — 

main    topgallant    studding- 
sail  — 

fore    topmast    studding- 
sail  — 

main   topmast   studding- 
sail 

Tack-tracing-line 

Tye  or  Tie 

topsail  —  25,  Fig.  120 
topsail  —  {of  a  schooner) 


130 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Tye  or  Tie 

fore  topsail  — 

main  topsail  — 

mizzen  topsail  — 

topgallant  — 

fore  topgallant  — 

main  topgallant  — 

mizzen   topgallant  — 
Topgallant  mast-rope 
Topping-lift  -^  23,  24,  25,  Fig. 
123 


Top-rope 

Tripping-line 

Vang 

—  fall;  Fall  of  a  — 
pendant  of  a  — 
preventer  — 
spanker  — 
trysail  — 
fore  trysail  — 
main  trysail  — • 


13I.     Blocks,  Tackles  and  Knots 
Blocks  are  used  in  a  ship  either  in  combination  with 
ropes  to  increase  mechanical  power,  or  to  arrange  and 
lead   ropes   to  positions   where  they   can  be  most   con- 
veniently handled  or  secured. 

A  block  consists  of  at  least  four  principal  parts: 

1.  The  shell  or  outside. 

2.  The  strap  or  part  of  block  to  which  the  fastening 
is  secured. 


3.  The  sheave,  or  wheel  over  which  the  rope  is  run. 

4.  The  pin,  or  axle,  on  which  the  sheave  turns. 

On  Fig.  123A  I  show  the  principal  parts  of  a  block 
and  several  types  of  blocks  used  on  ships  and  ashore. 

13F.     Description  of  a  Shell  of  a  JJlock 

Block  shells  are  made  of  wood,  and  of  metals  of 
various  kinds   (steel,  iron,  composition,  aluminum). 

For  the  running  rigging  of  ships  wood  shell  blocks 
are  most  generally  used.  These  shells  are  composed  of 
four  or  more  pieces  of  wood  fitted  and  fastened  together 
with  metal  dowels  and  screw  pins.  On  Fig.  8  of  illustra- 
tion sheet  123 A  is  shown  the  assembled  shell  of  a  single 
block  composed  of  two  sides  (8b)  connected  together  by 
top  and  bottom  pieces  that  keep  sides  the  proper  dis- 
tance apart.  The  space  between  sides  (8a)  is  named  the 
score  and  is  always  properly  proportioned  to  width  and 
diameter  of  sheave  and  diameter  of  rope  that  will  run 


LIGNUM- VITAE- SHEAVE 


IKON    SHEAVE 


BOLTS   |0R    PINS 


Single 


PATENT-SHEAVES 


BLOCK 


SINGLE    BLOCK 


SHELL-OF-A-BLOCK 


FOUR    lift  SHEAVE-BLOCK 


TREBLE    BLOCK 


// 


DOUBLE     BLOCK 


/Z 


/3 
SNATCH     BLOCK 


/4 


FIDDLE-  BLOCK  TAIL\  BLOCK 

Fig.   123  A 


/^s 


CAT  O  BLOCK 

^/2  A 


DEAD    EYE 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


J37 


over  sheave.  All  parts  of  blocks  are  proportioned  to 
withstand  a  greater  strain  than  rope  rove  through  it  will 
stand. 

The  woods  most  generally  used  for  shells  of  blocks 
are:  Lignum-vitae,  ash,  elm. 

Lignum-vitre  is  best  for  small  sizes  of  block  shells 
because  it  is  not  liable  to  split. 

For  larger  sizes  of  blocks  ash  and  elm  are  excellent 
woods. 

13I-.     The  Strap  of  a  Block  Described 

Block  straps  are  now  almost  universally  made  of  steel 
or  iron,  though  for  some  special  uses  rope  strapped  blocks 
continue  to  be  used.  Block  straps  of  iron  or  steel  can  be 
inserted  inside  of  shell  or  can  be  fitted  outside  as  shown 
on  Fig.  12b.  Inside  straps  (see  Figs.  6,  7,  9)  are  most 
frequently  used  on  ships.  As  you  will  note  by  referring 
to  Figs.  6  and  7,  the  strap  passes  each  side  of  score  and 
is  inserted  into  grooves  cut  in  shell  to  receive  it.  At  the 
upper  end  of  strap  a  loop  is  formed  for  the  eye  of  a 
hook  or  other  fastenings  device  (see  Figs.  6  and  9). 

When  it  is  necessary  to  fasten  the  standing  end  of  a 


rope  to  a  block,  it  is  passed  over  a  thimble  fitted  between 
an  extension  to  strap  left  for  that  purpose.  This  exten- 
sion is  clearly  shown  on  Figs.  6,  9  and  10  blocks.  Rope 
straps  are  spliced  around  outside  of  blocks  in  grooves 
cut  to  receive  them. 

13P.     Describing  the  Sheave  of  a  Block 

Block  sheaves  are  made  of  lignum-vitse,  of  iron,  of 
composition  metal,  and  a  combination  of  all  three. 

If  a  sheave  is  a  wheel  with  a  hole  through  its  center, 
as  shown  by  Figs,  i  and  2,  it  is  said  to  b^  a  plain  sheave, 
but  if  it  is  composed  of  one  large  wheel  into  which 
several  smaller  rollers  or  balls  are  inserted,  it  is  called 
a  roller  or  a  patent  sheave.  Patent  sheaves  are  now  in 
very  general  use  because  by  their  use  friction  is  greatly 
reduced  and  less  power  is  required  to  lift  the  load. 

A  sheave  is  inserted  into  each  score  of  a  block  and  is 
held  in  place  by  a  pin  that  passes  through  a  hole  in  each 
sheave  and  holes  in  strap  and  in  shell  of  block.  The 
pins  are  generally  made  of  steel,  or  of  composition  metal 
and  are  shaped  as  shown  on  Fig.  5  of  illustration  sheet 
r23A. 


SINGLE-WHIP 


LONG  -TACKLE  DOUBLE  -WHIP 

Fig.   123B 


SPANISH-BURTON 


138 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


13I*.     Names  of  Blocks 

Blocks  are  named  according  to  length  of  shell,  num- 
ber of  sheaves  and  shape.  Thus  a  block  having  a  shell 
6  inches  in  length  is  termed  a  6-inch  block,  and  if  there 
is  one  sheave  inserted  in  block  it  is  a  6-inch  single  block 
(see  Fig.  7)  ;  if  there  are  two  sheaves  it  is  called  a 
double  6-inch  block  (see  Fig.  11)  ;  and  if  there  are  three 
sheaves  a  6-inch  treble  block  (see  Fig.  10).  Blocks  are 
seldom  made  with  more  than  four  sheaves  (see  Fig.  9). 

In  addition  to  this  there  are  many  dififerent  shapes  of 
blocks  each  having  its  special  place  in  a  ship,  the  shape 
being  the  one  found  by  experience  to  be  best  adapted  for 
the  place  and  purpose. 

On  illustration  sheet  123A,  a  few  shapes  of  blocks 
are  shown.  A  dead-eye,  while  strictly  speaking  is  not  a 
block,  is  usually  classed  with  them.  The  lanyards  used 
for  setting  up  standing  rigging  of  a  vessel  are  rove 
through  holes  in  dead-eyes,  one  of  which  is  attached  to 
standing  rigging  and  the  other  to  a  chain  plate  on  side 
of  vessel. 

A  fiddle-block  is  practically  two  attached  single  blocks 


(one  over  the  other)  ;  they  are  used  in  places  where  a 
double  block  would  be  liable  to  split  by  canting  over, 
such  as  for  top-burtons  of  a  ship.  A  snatch  block  is  a 
single  block  so  arranged  that  a  rope  can  be  passed  over 
its  sheave  without  it  being  necessary  to  reeve  it  through 
the  score.  This  is  accomplished  by  having  a  cut  made 
through  one  shell  and  closing  ^he  cut  with  a  hinged  metal 
fastening  piece.  Both  the  cut  and  hinged  metal  piece 
are  shown  on  illustration  sheet  123 A.  This  kind  of 
block  is  very  useful  when  it  is  necessary  to  lead  a  rope 
in  a  desired  direction,  such  as  to  a  capstan  or  windlass. 

A  tail  block  is  a  single  rope  strapped  block,  to  which 
a  tail,  or  end  rope  is  attached. 

Cat-blocks  are  used  when  hoisting  anchor  in  position. 
They  are  extra  heavy  blocks  fitted  with  outside  iron  or 
steel  straps. 

Below  I  list,  in  alphabetical  order,  the  names  of 
principal  blocks  used  on  vessels.  The  numerals  marked 
against  some  items  indicate  that  the  block,  or  part  of 
block,  against  which  numeral  is  placed  is  identified  by 
that  numeral  on  illustration  sheets  123A,  B,  C. 


6 


WATCH    TACKLE 


RUNNER   ^TACKLE 


THREE    FOLD   PURCHASE 

rig.   123C 


TWO    FOLD   PURCHASE 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


139 


Names  of  Blocks 


Ketf-Krwi.    Fyure  of  Eight  Knot.  SingleBeul   Carrick  Bend 


Block,  brace  — 
brail  — 
bunt-line  — 

butterfly  —  {jor  topsail- 
sheet  at  bunt  of  lower 
yard) 

cat  —    ;  Cat-hook  —  12 
cheek  — 

cheek  of  a  —  8b 
clew-garnet  — 
clew-line  — 
clump  — 
dead  —  (Heart) 
double  —  II 
downhaul  — 
fiddle  —  14 
fish-tackle  — 
girtline  — 
halliard  — 
hook  —  12a 
internal  bound  — 
iron  bound  —  ;   iron 
stropped  —  12b 
jeer     —      (employed     for 
raising  a  lower  yard) 
jewel  — 
leading  — 
leech-line  — 
lift  — 

lift  purchase  — 
nine-pin  —  s 
pin  of  a  —  s 
purchase  — 
reef  tackle  — 
score  —  8a 


Block,  sheave  —  i,  2,  3 

bouching  or  bush  in  sheave 

of  a  —  4 

sheave-hole  or  channel 

of  a  —  2a 

bottom    of    a    sheave-hole 

in  a  — 

lignum-vitse  sheave  of  —  i 

metal  sheave  —  2 

sheet  — • 

shell  —  6 

shoe  — 

shoulder  — 

single  —  7 

sister  —  14 

snatch  —  13 

span  — 

strop  of  a  — 

swallow  of  a  — 

swivel  — 

tack  — 

tackle  pendant  — 

tail  —  IS 

tie  — 

top  — 

topping  lift  — 

treble  —  10 

wheel   chain  —    ;   wheel 

rope  — • 

Bull's-eye;  Wooden  thimble 
Dead-eye  ^   16 
Dead-sheave;   Half-sheave 
Gin ;  Gin-wheel 
Heart  (dead-block) 


I  will  now  pass  to  a  description  of  tackles. 

i3ni.     Tackles 

When  a  rope  is  rove  through  a  single  block  the  com- 
bined block  and  rope  is  named  a  single  whip,  but  if  the 
rope  is  rove  through  two  or  more  blocks  the  combina- 
tion is  named  a  tackle. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  tackles,  each  hav- 
ing its  use  and  each  increasing  the  power  obtained  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  sheaves  around  which  the  rope  is 
rove,  the  manner  of  reeving  the  rope  and  the  relative 
positions  of  load  and  of  hauling  part. 

On  Figs.  123B  and  123C  I  illustrate  a  number  of 
commonly  used  tackles.  Fig.  i  shows  a  single  whip, 
the  smallest  and  simplest,  purchase  in  use.  Fig.  2  shows 
details  of  a  long  tackle  composed  of  two  fiddle  blocks 
with  falls  rove  as  shown.  Fig.  3  illustrates  the  way  a 
double  whip  is  rove  and  Fig.  4  a  Spanish-burton.  Fig.  5 
shows  details  of  a  watch  tackle  composed  of  a  single  and 
a  double  block,  and  Fig.  6  a  runner  and  tackle  combined. 
When  using  the  runner  and  tackle  the  hook  of  runner  is 
fixed  to  object  intended  to  be  moved. 

A  three-fold  purchase  is  composed  of  two  three- 
sheave  blocks.     On  the  illustration  the  rope  is  rove  off 


,     Fig.   123D 

from  outside  to  outside  thus  bringing  the  hauling  part 
on  outside.  It  is  better,  I  think,  to  reeve  the  fall  over 
iniddle  sheave  first  instead  of  over  an  outside  one.     This 


M„Hh<'i>-  Wtilkn- 


I  Mm  tvfif  hHM 


Fig.   123E 


I40 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


will  bring  a  cross  in  the  fall,  but  it  will  carry  the  heaviest 
strain,  which  always  comes  on  the  fall  part,  in  center 
of  block  and  will  also  prevent  the  block  canting.  When 
fall  is  in  middle  the  block  is  drawn  square  with  direc- 
tion of  pull  and  strain  is  equalized  on  all  sheaves.  A 
two-fold  purchase  is  shown  by  Fig.  8. 

Below  I  have  listed  names  of  a  few  of  the  principal 
tackles  used  on  board  ships. 


Names  of  Tackles 


Tackle 

boom  — 
cat  — ■  ;  Cat 
fish  —  for 
—  fall 
long  —  2 
luff  — 
reef  — 
relieving  — 
rolling  — 
runner  and  — 
stay  — 
swifting  — ■ 
tack  — 

— ■  upon  tackle 
yard  — 


—  for 


Purchase 

gun  tackle  — 

lift  — 

two-fold  —  8 

three-fold  —  7 

four-fold  — ■ 
Jigger  or  Watch-tackle  —  5 

boom  — 

bunt  — 

tail  — 
Whip,   (single)  —  i 

bunt  — 

double  —  3 

— ■  and  runner 
Spanish-burton  —  4 


i3n.     Knots  and  Splices 

As  it  is  necessary  that  a  shipbuilder  should  know  the 
names  of  the  principal  knots  used  on  board  ships  and  in 
shipyards  I  have  on  Figs.  123D  and  E,  illustrated  a  few 
of  the  knots  that  are  in  general  use,  and  on  Fig.  123F 
I  have  shown  method  of  fastening  two  pieces  of  ropes 
together  by   splicing.     The   long  splice    (illustrated)    is 


used  when  the  rope  has  to  pass  through  a  block ;  you  will 
note  that  the  long  splice  does  not  increase  diameter  of 
rope,  while  the  short  splice  does  (Fig.  123F). 

On  list  below  I  give  names  of  a  number  of  commonly 
used  knots  and  against  those  illustrated  on  Figs.  121, 
123D  and  E,  I  have  marked  the  identifying  numeral. 

Knots,  Bends,  Hitches  and  Splices 


Knot 

single  diamond  — 
double  diamond  — 
figure  of  eight  —  2 
Matthew  Walker  —  17 
overhand  — ■ 
reef  or  square  —  i 
rope-yarn  — •  32 
shroud  —  20 
French  shroud  — 
stopper  —  19 
Turk's-head  —  i8 
single  wall  — ■  13 
single-  wall  and  crown- 
double  wall  — •  14 
double  wall  and  crown 
16  —   (man-rope  knot) 

Bend 

carrick  —  4 
double  — 
fisherman's  — 
single  —  3 ;  sheet  —   ; 
common  — 
studdingsail  halliard  — 

Clinch 

inside  — 

outside  — 
Catspaw  —  29 


Hitch 

blackwall  —  30 

double  blackwall  — 

bowline  —  6 

bowline  on  the  bight  —  7 

running  bowline 

clove  —  II 

half  —  12 


Hitch,  half  —  and  timber 
marling  —  9 
marling  spike  — 
midshipman's  — 
rolling  —  8 
timber  —  10 
two  half  —  es 

Sheep-shank  —  5 

Splice 

cable  — 
eye  —  22 
horseshoe  — 
long  —  21 
short  — •  23 


10 


Eve 


Elliot's  — 
Flemish  —  27 


'-t^i^t:^^ 


Banning  Rigging  Beadr  to  Beeva  Off 


IF  00  DEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


141 


TABLE  13D 


RECOMMENDED  GIRTHS,  IN  INCHES,  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  WIRE  LOWER  RIGGING,  BACKSTAYS,  STAYS,  AND 
BOWSPRIT  SHROUDS,  OF  SAILING  VESSELS,  ALSO  SIZES  OF  BOBSTAYS  FOR  SAME 


TONNAGE 

300 

400 

SCO 

600 

700 

8so 

1000 

1250 

OF  VESSEL 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

No. 

Girth 

Fore  and  Main  Shrouds 

Fore  and  Main  Topmast  Backstays 
Fore  and  Main  Top-gallant  Back- 
stays   

4 
2 

I 

2 
2 
I 

2H 

■2'A 

4 

2 

I 
2 

2 
I 

3 
2 

3 

2^ 
2 

4 
2 

I 
2 
2 
I 

3 

2% 
3X 
3 

2yi 

5 
2 

I 
2 
2 

I 

3K 
3>< 

2^ 
3K 

3^ 

2>< 

5 
2 

I 
2 
2 
I 

3K 
3K 

2>^ 

3K 
3>^ 

2j^ 

5 
2 

I 
2 
2 

I 

4 
3K 

2J< 

4 

3K 

2K 

5 
2 

I 
2 
2 
I 

4X 
4 

2?^ 
4>< 
4 
2^ 

6 
3 

2 

2 
2 
I 

4>^ 
4>< 

3 

Fore  and  Main  Lower  Stays 

Fore  and  Main  Topmast  Stays 

Fore  and  Main  Top-gallant  Stays.. 

4>^ 
4>< 
3 

3 

I 
I 
2 

I 
I 

2K 
2H 

I'A 

2H 
2K 

3 
I 

I 
2 
I 
I 

2H 

2% 
iK 
2^ 
2^ 
\H 

3 

I 
I 
2 

I 
1 

3 

2>l 

2^ 
2J< 
13^ 

4 
2 
I 

2 
I 

I 

3>^ 
3 

2 

4 
2 
I 
2 
I 
I 

3>< 
3^ 

2>i 

3>i 

3 

2 

4 
2 

I 
2 
I 
I 

3K 
3^ 

2>< 

3X 
3^ 

2>^ 

5 
3 
2 
2 
2 
I 

^1< 

^'^ 

2l/f 

Mizzen  Lower  Stays 

3'-^ 

Mizzen  Topmast  Stays 

3 '4 

Mizzen  Top-gallant  Stays 

2'.< 

2 

2K 

2 

2H 

2 

3 

2 

iVi 

2 

3^ 

2 

3H 

2 

3K 

2 

3^ 

Bobstay  Bar,  Diameter  in  Inches.. 
Bobstay  Pin,  Diameter  in  Inches. . 
Bobstay  Chain,  Size  in  Inches 

HA 
1% 

2 
1^6 

2ii 

1% 

2% 
HA 
1^6 

2>^ 
1% 

2A 

1% 

2A 
2}i 

1^6 

2^>< 
1% 

Steel  Wire  Rigging  may  be  I2>^  per  centum  less  in  size  than  is  specified  in  table. 

Hemp  Standing  Rigging,  according  to  quality,  should  be  from  two  to  two  and  a  quarter  times  the  girth  required  for  iron  wire  rigging. 


Fig.  123F 


Chapter  XIV 

Masts  and  Spars 


The  masts  and  spars  of  wooden  vessels  are  usually 
made  of  wood.  They  are  rounded  for  a  greater  part  of 
their  length  and  stepped  in  properly  prepared  mast  steps 
fastened  to  keelson,  though  in  ships  that  have  a  center 
line  propeller,  the  after  mast  step  cannot  extend  below 
top  of  shaft  tunnel. 

The  location,  number  and  dimensions  of  mast  and  all 
other  spars  are  marked  on  a  spar  and  rigging  plan  pre- 
pared by  designer.  Lloyd's  and  the  other  classification 
societies  have  laid  down  rules  for  masting  and  rigging 
and  have  also  issued  tables  of  dimensions,  and  when  a 
designer  prepares  his  plans  he  generally  adheres  to  the 
specifications  of  classification  societies. 

Mast,  or  spar  making,  used  to  be  a  separate  trade, 
but  at  present  time  most  shipyards  have  their  own  spar- 
makers. 

14a.     Timber  Used  for  Spars 

The  timbers  commonly  used  in  U.  S.  A.  for  masts 
and  spars  are: 

Oregon  pine  or  Douglas  fir. 
Spruce,  Canada  red.  Yellow  and  white  pine. 
Yellow  pine. 
And  in  Europe,  Riga  fir  and  Norway  pine  is  largely 
used. 

Timber  for  masts  and  spars  must  be  absolutely  free 
from  sapwood,  dead  knots  and  defects  likely  to  lessen 


Fig.    126.     Making   a   Spar 

Strength.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  advantageous  to  have 
the  smaller  pieces  of  timber  delivered  to  the  sparmaker 
before  they  are  squared,  because  the  sparmaker  can  then 
lay  out  spar  in  such  a  manner  that  center  or  heartwood 
of  tree  is  near  center  of  spar. 

On  Fig.   124  is  shown  a  stick  of  timber  being  con- 


..v.,^^,,„. 


pQF'TfON  or*  WOOUEN  BUILT   Mast     ^ 


% 


t 


Uppcr-Portiom  or  am  iron-Mast^ 

Tnw-lioop  ftrxiinl 


j:V;:''|j!!;!'j>'?:"'r 


'r 


Fig.  124.     Making  a  Spai 


Figs.  126  and  128.     Names  of  Parts  of  Mast 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


143 


"^ 


:■ 


Fi.riNC  'jia-  BOOM 


nm 


|Cn: 


r.  ^ 


H       I 


•ir^ 


z^ 


-4v~4i: 


m 


ctp 


^.c.  ..-,-' 


has  been  done,  and  stick  is  fair,  the  sparmaker  dubs  off 
the  square  corners  and  makes  portion  of  stick  that  has 
to  be  rounded,  eight  sided.  Next  he  makes  it  sixteen 
sided,  by  again  taking  off  the  corners,  and  after  this 
has  been  done  the  stick  is  rounded  and  made  perfectly 
smooth.  Of  course,  as  spar  has  a  rounding  taper  from 
butt  to  point  of  greatest  diameter,"  and  from  this  point 
to 'top,  it  is  necessary  that  sparmaker  "lay  out"  longi- 
tudinal taper  lines  very  accurately  and  work  to  them. 

In  the  case  of  booms,  yards,  and  other  smaller  spars, 
the  same  method  of  procedure  is  followed. 

On  Fig.  126  is  shown  details  of  a  ship's  mast  and  on 
Fig.  127  shapes  and  names  of  various  spars. 

After  a  spar  is  shaped,  it  should  be  well  oiled  or 
painted  to  prevent  wood  checking,  and  then  mast  fittings 
and  bands  should  be  fitted  and  fastened  in  place. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  details  of  mast 
head,  tops  and  their  fittings,  and  on  each  illustration  I 
have  listed  the  name  of  each  detail  identified  on  illustra- 
tions by  numerals. 

14c.     Mast  Steps 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  I  mentioned  mast 
steps.     These   are   generally    cast    steel    shoes,    securely 


Topmast 
bvsUt  treat 


laymast. 
crotttrea 


W 


T'Aaa  A'H  <«oM''^ 


TOPftALLANT^^y   YAWO 


Figs.  127  and  134 

verted  into  a  spar.  Note  how  the  center  of  heart  is 
located  at  about  the  center  of  stick,  and  on  Fig.  125  is 
shown  the  same  stick  of  timber  converted  into  a  spar. 

14b.     Spar-Making 

A  stick  of  timber  is  converted  into  a  spar  in  this 
manner : 

The  spannaker  first  obtains  length  and  diameter 
measurements  from  spar  and  rigging  plans  and  proceeds 
to  "lay  out"  the  Spar  on  one  side  of  stick  of  timber,  if 
it  is  a  squared  stick;  or  if  it  is  a  round  stick  of  timber, 
he  hews  one  side  to  a  flat  surface  upon  which  the  laying 
out  lines  can  be  marked.  On  a  squared  stick  of  timber 
the  "laying  off"  lines  are  marked  on  each  face,  but  if 
the  stick  is  a  round  one,  it  will  be  necessary  to  hew  to 
the  lines  marked  on  one  face  before  lities  can  be  marked 
on  other  faces.  The  spar  is  first  worked  to  shape  by 
hewing  in  the  manner  shown  on  Fig.  124  and  when  this 


Fig.  129.     Spu  and  Rigging  Details 


144 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


fitted  over  and  bolted  to  upper  keelsons.  The  upper  face 
of  this  casting  has  a  recess  of  proper  size  and  depth  to 
receive  tenon  cut  on  foot  of  mast.  In  the  case  of 
steamers  having  a  single  screw  and  an  after  mast  located 
above  shaft,  it  is  necessary  to  step  mast  on  lower  deck, 
or  on  a  properly  prepared  step  bolted  to  top  of  shaft 
alley  planking  and  framing.  Where  a  mast  goes  through 
a  deck,  it  must  be  properly  supported  and  wedged  in 
place,  and  of  course  the  deck  framing  must  be  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  withstand  additional  strains  that  will 
come  on  deck  near  mast  and  where  rigging  is  attached  to 
side  of  vessel.  The  manner  of  framing  a  deck  around  a 
mast  is  clearly  shown  on  Fig.  27  and  on  some  of  the 
drawings  of  deck  framing  shown  at  end  of  book.  On 
the  drawing  No.  28  mast  step  construction  details  are 
clearly  shown. 

i4d.     ^Iasts  and  Spars  of  Various  Rigs 
On  the  following  lists  I  give  names  of  masts  and  spars 
of  principal  rigs,  each  spar  being  identified  by  numerals 
marked  on  illustrations. 


Fig.    131.     Barque   Spars 


32. 
33. 

34. 

Fore  yard. 

Lower-fore   topsail    yard. 

Upper-fore   topsail    yard. 

40. 
41. 
42. 

Main    topgallant    yard 
Main    royal    yard. 
Spanker    boom. 

35. 
36. 
37, 

Fore  topgallant  yard. 
Fore  royal  yard. 
JIain  yard. 

43. 
44. 

45. 

Spanker   gaff. 
Bowsprit. 
Jib  boom. 

38. 
39. 

I.ower-main    topsail    yard. 
Upper-main  topsail  yard. 

46. 

Inlying  jib  boom. 

Fig.  132.     Barkentlne  Spars 


Fig.  130.     Ship  Spars 

Sp.'\rs  OF  Ship 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
e. 
7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 


Flying   jib    boom.  24. 

Jib    boom.  25. 

Bowsprit.  26. 

Martingale    boom.  27. 

Fore  mast.  28. 

Fore    topmast.  29. 

Fore  topgallant  mast.  30. 

Fore    royal    mast.  31. 

Fore  skysail  mast.  32. 

Main   mast.  33. 

Main    topmast.  34. 

Main    topgallant   mast.  35. 

Main  royal   mast.  36. 

Main   skysail   mast.  37. 

Mizzen    mast.  38. 

Mizzen    topmast.  39. 

Mizzen    topgallant    mast.  40. 

Mizzen    royal    mast.  41. 

Mizzen    skysail    mast.  42. 

Fore    yard.  43. 

Lower-fore   topsail    yard.  44. 

Upper-fore   topsail    yard.  45. 
Lower-fore  topgallant   yard. 


Upper-fore  topgallant  yard. 

Fore  royal   yard. 

Fore  skysail   yard. 

Main    yard. 

Lower-main   topsail   yard. 

Upper-main   topsail   yard. 

Lower-main  topgallant   yard. 

Upper-main    topgallant    yard. 

Main    royal    yard. 

Main   skysail   yard. 

Cross-jack  yard. 

Lower-mizzen    topsail    yard. 

Upper-mizzen   topsail   yard. 

Lower-mizzen    topgallant    yard. 

Upper-mizzen    topgallant 

Mizzen   royal  yard. 

Mizzen  skysail  yard. 

Fore  trysail  gaff. 

Main  trysail  gaff. 

Spanker  boom. 

Spanker   gaff. 

Monkey  gaff. 


yard. 


23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15, 
16. 
17. 


Fore   yard. 
Lower  topsail  yard. 
Upper    topsail    yard. 
Topgallant  yard. 
Royal  yard. 
Bowsprit. 


29. 
30. 
31. 
32, 
33. 


Jib  boom. 
Flying  jib   boom. 
Martingale    boom. 
Main  boom. 
Main  gaff. 


Foremast  and  Its  Rigging 


Lower  mast.  18. 

Tap.  19. 

Mast-head.  20. 

Lower  cap.  21. 

Topmast.  22. 

Topmast  crosstrees.  23. 

Topmast   head.  24, 

Topmast    cap,  25. 

Lower  yard.  26. 

Topsail    yard.  27. 

Topmast   studdingsail  boom.               28. 
Topgallant   studdingsail    boom.          29. 

Lower  rigging.  30, 

Swifter   (foremost  shroud),  31, 

Sheer-batten.  32. 

Ratlines.  33. 

Dead-eyes.  34. 


Lanyards. 
Chain  plates. 
Topmast    backstays. 
Lower   futtocks. 
Topmast   rigging. 
Topgallant    futtocks. 
Sling  of  lower-yard. 
Topsail    tye. 
Lower   lifts. 
Topsail    lifts. 
Lower   foot-ropes. 
Topsail   foot-ropes. 
Stirrups, 
Flemish   horse. 
Quarter  irons. 
Yard-arm  irons. 
Lift  purchase. 


22.  Fore  mast. 

23.  Fore  topmast. 

24.  Fore  topgallant  mast, 

25.  Fore   royal   mast. 

26.  Main  mast. 


Names  of  Barque  Spars 


27.  Main   topmast. 

28.  Main   topgallant   mast. 

29.  Main    royal    mast. 

30.  Mizzen   mast. 

31.  Mizzen  topmast. 


Names  of  Fore-and-Aft  Schooner  Spars 

1,  Fore   mast,  7,  Fore    boom, 

2.  Main    mast,  8,  Main   boom, 

3,  Mizzen  mast,  9,  Mizzen   boom, 

4,  Fore  topmast.  10.  Fore  gaff. 

5.  Main    topmast.  11.  Main    gaff. 

6.  Mizzen  topmast,  12,  Mizzen  gaff. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


145 


Fig.  133  and  120.     Rigged  Foremast 


List  of  Masts  and  Spars  of  Vessels 


Boom,    fore  topmast  studding- 
sail  — 

main   topmast   sfuddingr 
sail  — 

Bowsprit  —  I,  Fig.  127-134 
Parts  of  Bowsprit: 
bed  of  — 

bees  or  cheeks  of  — 
gammoning  of  — 
screw-gammoning    hoop 
of  — 

housing  — •  {the  part  in- 
side of  stem)  I  a,  Fig.  134 
—  partners 

running  —  (in  small  ves- 
sels) 

saddle  of  — 
steeve  of  — 
step  of  — 
tenon  of  —  ib,  Fig.  134 

Bumpkin ;   Bumkin  ;   Boomkin 
quarter  — ;  Outrigger  (for 
main  braces) 

Cap  is  fitted  on  spars  listed  be- 
low: 

bowsprit  —  ic,  Fig.   134 
lower  gd,  Fig.  134 
fore-mast  (iu  any  vessel) 
main-mast  (in  any  vessel) 
mizzen-mast  —  (0/  a  ship) 
mizzen-mast    —    (of    a 
barque,   barquentine   or 
three-masted  schooner) 


Boom — Names  of  parts  of  : 
—  crutch 

gooseneck  —  4a,  Fig.  127 
jaw  or  throat  —  3a,  Fig. 
127 

jaw-rope 

reefing  cleat  — •  4b,  Fig.  127 
saddle  — 

fore  — ;   gaff-fore   sail  — 
{of  a  schooner) 
{square)  fore  sail  — 
load  — ;  Derrick; 
main  —  3,  Fig.   127    {of  a 
schooner,    brigantine,    bar- 
quentine or  three-masted 
schooner) 

main  —  {of  a  brig) 
main    —    {of   a   sloop    or 
cutter) 

mizzen  —   {of  a  barquen- 
tine    or    a    three  -  masted 
schooner) 
ring  tail  — 
spanker  — 

studdingsail  —  7,  Fig.   127 
studdingsail   —    {boom- 
iron)    —  on   all   studding- 
sail  booms 

lower  studdingsail  — ; 
swing  —  {Ship) 


Boom — Names  of  parts  of : 
royal  studdingsail  — 
(Ship) 

fore   royal   studdingsail  — 
(Ship) 

main  royal  studdingsail  — 
(Ship) 

topgallant  studdingsail  — 
fore   topgallant   studding- 
sail  —  (Ship) 
main    topgallant    studding- 
sail  —  (Ship) 
topmast  studdingsail  — 
(Ship) 

Cap,  on  all  top  and  topgallant 
masts : 

topgallant  mast  — 
fore   topgallant  mast  — 
main  topgallant  mast  — 
mizzen  topgallant  mast  — 
topmast  —  lod.  Fig.  127 
fore  topmast  — 
main  topmast  — 
mizzen  topmast  — 

Crosstrees  -~  20,  Fig.  129 

Fitted   on   spars   listed  be- 
low : 
fore  mast  — ;   fore  lower 

—  {in  any  vessel) 

main  mast  —  ;  main  lower 

—  (in  any  vessel) 
mizzen    mast    — •;    mizzen 
lower  —  (of  a  ship) 
mizzen  mast  — ;  (of  a 
barque,   barquentine  or 
three-masted  schooner) 
topgallant  — 

fore   topgallant   — 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen  topgallant  — 
topmast  — 
fore  topmast  — 
main  topmast  — 
mizzen  topmast  — ■ 

Flying  jib  boom  —  i,  Fig.   130 

Gaff  —  fitted  on  vessels  rigged 
in  manner  mentioned  be- 
low: 

jackstay  on   a  —  6a,   Fig. 
127 

jaw  —  5a,  Fig.  127 
jaw-rope  of  a  — • 
throat  bolt  —  sb.  Fig.   127 

—  traveller; 

fore  — ;  boom  fore-sail  — 
(of  a  schooner) 
main    —    (of   a   schooner, 
barquentine,    brigantine   or 
three-masted    schooner) 
main   — ;    main   boom   sail 

—  (of  a  brig) 

mizzen  —   (of  a  barquen- 
tine or  three-masted 
schooner) 

monkey  —  45,  Fig.  130 
trysail  — 


10 


WOODEN      SHIPBUILDING 


Gaff 

fore  trysail  —  41,  Fig.  130 
main  trysail  —  42,  Fig.  130 
spanker  —  44,  Fig.  130 
Jib-boom  —  2,  Fig.  130 

—  traveller   (Jib-traveller) 
Martingale-boom ;    Dolphin- 
striker 

Mast,  parts  of  a : 

lower  —  9,  Fig.   129 

—  cheek  or  Hound- 
piece;  —  9b,  Fig.  127 

—  coat 

fish  front,  or  rubbing 
paunch  — 
foot  —  9c,  Fig.  127 
tenon  (of  the  foot)  —  ge. 
Fig.   127 

—  head ;  g{,  Fig.  127 

—  head    tenon;    tenon    of 

—  head  —  gg,  Fig.  127 

—  hole 

—  hoop  gh,  Fig.  127 
hounding  of  a  —  (part  of 
a  mast  between  upperdcck 
and  trestle-trees) 
housing  of  a  —  (part  of  a 
mast  under  deck)  —  gx. 
Fig.    128 

jackstay  — 

patent  jackstay  or  slide  — 

knee  —  9k,  Fig.  128 

—  partners  —  Fig.  28 

—  partner  chocks,  Fig.  28 
Mast,  rake  of  a  —  (its  inclina- 
tion   from    perpendicular) 

Erection  in  a  vessel  for  lower 
end  of  mast: 

—  step;  step  of  a  — 

—  step  cheek 

—  step  cleat 

—  trunk 

—  wedges    (wedges  to  se- 
cure mast  at  decks) 

Masts — Names  of  and  their 
parts : 

Foremast  —  s,  Fig.  130  (of  a 
ship,  barque,  brig,  brigan- 
tine,  schooner,  etc.) 
(of  a  lateen  vessel) 

Jigger-mast  (hindmost  mast  in 
a  four-masted  ship) 

Jigger-mast  (in  the  stern  of  a 
small  craft) 

Jur}'-mast 

Main-mast  (in  any  vessel)  10, 
Fig.  130 

Mizzen-mast  (of  a  skip)  15, 
Fig.  130 

Mizzen-mast  (of  a  barque,  bar- 
quentine  or  three-masted 
schooner) 

Pole-mast 

Royal-mast  —  12,  Fig.  130 
fore  —  8,  Fig.  13c 


Royal-mast 

main  —   13,  Fig.   130 
mizzen  —  18,  Fig.  130 

Skysail-mast  —  13,  Fig.  130 
fore  —  9,  Fig.   130 
main  — ■  14,  Fig.  130 
mizzen  —  19,  Fig.  130 

Snow-mast ;    Trysail-mast 

Top-gallant-mast    —     11,    Fig. 
130 

—  fid 

fid  hole  —  loa,  Fig.   127 
sheave-hole     for     top  rope 
in  a  — 

Topgallant-mast,    sheave-hole 
for  tye  in  a  — 
fore  —  7,  Fig.   130 
main  —  12,  1-ig.   130 
mizzen  —  17,  1-ig.  130 
long  —    (topgallant-mast 
with     royalmast     in     one 
length) 
short  — 

Topmast  —   10,  Fig.   127 

—  fid 

fid  hole   in   a  —   loa,   Fig. 
127 

—  head  —  lob.  Fig.  127 

—  heel  —  IOC,  Fig.  127 

—  hound 

—  hounding   (the  part  be- 
tween lower  cap  and  top- 
mast  trestle-trees) 
sheave-hole    for    top    rope 
in  a  — 

sheave-hole   for  topsail-tye 

in  a  — 

fore  —   (when  fitted  with 

yards)  —  6,  Fig.  1 30 

fore   —    (when   not    fitted 

with  any  yards) 

jury  — 

main  —  (of  a  ship,  barque 

or  brig)  —  11,  Fig.   130 

main   —    (of  a   brigantine 

or  schooner) 

main  —  (of  a  barquentine 

or  three-masted  schooner) 

mizzen  —   (of  a  ship)   — 

16,  Fig.   130 

Topmast,     mizzen     —     (07     a 

barque,      barquentine      or 

three-masted  schooner) 

spare  — 
Outrigger 
Pole;  Flag-pole  —  (carried  aft 

on  all  vessels  and   boats) 

mast  — 

fore  mast  — 

jigger   masr  — 

main  mast  — 

mizzen  mast  — 

royal  — 

fore  royal  — 

main   royal  — 


Pole 

mizzen  royal  — 
skysail  — 
fore  skysail  — 
main  skysail  — 
mizzen  skysail  — 
stump  — 
topgallant  — 
fore  topgallant  — 
main   topgallant  — • 
mizzen  topgallant  — 
topmast  — 
fore  topmast  — 

Pole  is  the  pointed  portion  of 
a  mast  above  the  eyes  of 
the  rigging,  when  there  is 
no  topmast  fitted;  or  the 
upper  pointed  part  of  a 
topmast  (when  there  is  no 
topgallant  mast),  or  of  a 
topgallant  -  mast  (when 
there  is  no  royal-mast) 
etc. 

Top 

Name  of  parts   of  a  top  of 
square-rigged   vessels : 
close  planked  — 
grated  — 

lubber  hole  in  a  ^ — 
netting  of  a  — ;   Top-net- 
ting 

rail  of  a  — ;  Top-rail 
rim  of  — ;  Top-rim 
fore  — 
main  — 
mizzen  — 

Trestle-trees  —  21,  Fig.  129 
Names    of    parts    of    trestle- 
trees  : 

bolster,    or    pillow    on    top 
of  —    (under  the  eyes  of 
rigging) 
fore  mast  — 
main   mast  — 
mizzen  mast  —  (of  a  ship) 
mizzen      mast   —    (of      a 
barque,      barquentine      or 
three-masted  schooner) 
topgallant  — 
fore    topgallant   — 
main  topgallant  — 
mizzen   topgallant  — 
topmast  — 

fore  topmast  —  21,  Fig.  129 
main  topmast  — 
mizzen  topmast  — 

Yard 

Names  of  parts  of  a  yard 
used  on  square-rigged 
vessels  : 

—  arm 

—  arm  cleat 

—  arm  hoop    (for  lift, 
brace,  etc.) 

—  arm   iron   —   i6b,   Fig. 
127 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


147 


Yard 
Names    of   parts    of    a   yard 
used  on  square-rigged  ves- 
sels : 
roller  in  —  arm  iron 

—  batten 

center,    bunt,    or    sling    of 

a  — 

jackstay  —  i6c,  Fig.  127 

parrel    of    an    {upj>er)    — 

17a,  Fig.  127 

quarter  —  i6d,  Fig.  127 

—  quarter  iron  —  i6e.  Fig. 
127 

sheave-hole  — 

sling  of  a  lower  — 

sling-cleat  of  a  (lower)  — 

sling-hoop  of  a  {lower)  — 

l6f.   Fig.    127 

standard    or    crane    of    a 

lower  topsail  — 

truss  of  a  {lower)  —  i6g. 

Fig.   127 

truss-hoop  of  a  (lower)  — 
Yards 

Names    of    yards    used    on 

square-rigged   vessels : 
Cross-jack-yard  —  34,  Fig.  130 


Fore-yard  —  32,  Fig.  131 
Fore-yard  —  20,  Fig.  130 
GafF-topsail-yard 
Lower-yard 

Main-yard  —  27,  Fig.  130 
Royal  yard  — •  19,  Fig.  127 
fore  —  25,  Fig.   130 
main  —  32,  Fig.  130 
mizzen  —  39,  Fig.  130 

Skysail-yard 

fore  —  26,  Fig.   130 
main  —  33,  Fig.   130 
mizzen  —  40,  Fig.  130 

Spritsail-yard 

Squaresail  yard  (the  yard  of 
a  schooner  or  of  a  sloop, 
cutter,  etc.) 

Studdingsail-yard 

lower  —  Fig.  130 
royal  —  Fig.  130 
topgallant  —  Fig.   130 
topmast  —  Fig.   130 

Topgallant-yard 

fore  —  35,  Fig.  131 
lower  fore  —  23,  Fig.  130 
upper  fore  —  24,  Fig.   130 


Topgallant-yard 
lower  — 
main  — 

lower  main  —  30,  Fig.  130 
upper  main  —  31,  Fig.  130 
mizzen   — 
lower  mizzen  —  37,  Fig. 

130 

upper  mizzen  —  38,   Fig. 

130 
upper  — 

Topsail-yard 

(of  a  schooner) 

fore  — 

lower  fore  —  21,  Fig.  130 

upper  fore  —  22,  Fig.   130 

lower  — ■ 

main  — 

lower  main  —  28,  Fig.  130 

upper  main  —  29,  Fig.  130 

mizzen  — 

lower   mizzen   —   35,    Fig. 

130 

upper    mizzen   —   36,    Fig. 

130 
Upper- Yards 

upper  — 


TABLE  OF  THE  FRACTIONAL  PROPORTION  THAT  THE 

INTERMEDIATE  DIAMETERS  BEAR  TOWARDS  THE 

GIVEN  DIAMETER   OF  MASTS,  YARDS,  ETC. 


Proportions  to  the  Given 

Diameter 

SPECIES  OF 
MASTS,  YARDS,  ETC. 

Quarters 

Head 

I  St 

2nd 

3rd 

Lower 
Part 

Upper 
Part 

Heel 

•%i 

Hi 

ft 

?4 

% 

t 

Topmast,    Topgallant 
Masts  and  Royal-Masts 

•%i 

'«! 

«7 

«i 

•li 

Yards 

*)h 

% 

^li 

Arms 

Bowsprit 

•9ii 

'Hj 

% 

?i 

Outer 
End 

"Si 

",'n 

% 

Ends 

Main-booms 

*%i 

'Tu 

» 

Fore 
Ends 

?4 

After 
End 

Middle 

«%. 

'«! 

IS 

S 

Heeling 

Standing-Masts 

Athwart 
Ship 

Fore 
and  Aft 

V, 

Bowsprit 

Athwart 
Ship 

1i! 

Up  and 
Down 

Chapter  XV 

Description  of  Types  of  Vessels 


15a.     Explaining    Division    of    Vessels   into    Types 
AND  Classes 

Vessels  are  divided  into  kinds,  such  as  steam,  motor- 
driven,  auxiliary  and  sailing  vessels ;  and  each  kind  of 
vessel  is  then  divided  into  types,  and  each  type  is  sub- 
divided into  classes  according  to  general  arrangement  of 
decks,  number  of  decks,  and  certain  structural  details. 

Steam  vessels  are  generally  designated  according  to 
purpose  for  which  they  are  designed.  Thus,  there  are 
war  vessels,  passenger  steamers,  cargo  carriers,  ferry- 
boats, fishing  vessels,  light  ships,  tugs,  steam  lighters, 
wrecking  vessels,  etc. 

Sailing  and  auxiliary  craft  are  generally  designated 
according  to  rig.  Thus,  there  are  ships,  barks,  barken- 
tines,  brigs,  brigantines,  schooners,  etc. 

Vessels  are  also  classed,  or  named,  according  to  num- 
ber of  decks,  structural  arrangement  of  decks  and  houses, 
and  details  of  certain  parts  of  their  structure,  and  as  it  is 
very  necessary  that  you  have  a  clear  understanding  of 
this  I  have  illustrated  and  briefly  described  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  details  and  the  various  classes  of  vessels. 

15b.     One-Decked  Vessels 

These  are  small  vessels  having  one  completely  laid 
deck-flat,  and  little  depth  of  hold,  say  12  feet  or  less. 
When  the  depth  of  hold  increases  to  14  or  15  feet,  some 
hold-beams  are  inserted. 

A  one-decked  vessel  can  be  either  steam  or  sail  driven 
and,  of  course,  can  be  used  for  any  purpose  it  is  designed 
for.  Fig.  202  illustrates  a  one-deck  steam  trawler,  Fig. 
203  a  one-deck  auxiliary  schooner,  and  Fig.  212  a  one- 
deck  schooner. 

15c.     Two-Decked  Vessels 

These  vessels  have  generally  a  depth  of  hold  from 
about  20  to  24  feet,  the  decks  are  called  upper  deck  and 
lower  deck,  the  latter  also  styled  '"tween-deck." 

Fig.  205  illustrates  a  two-deck  motor-driven  cargo 
vessel,  and  Fig.  207  a  two-deck  schooner. 

i5d.     Three-Decked  Vessels 

These  are  vessels  having  three  tiers  of  beams,  with  at 
least  two  decks  laid  and  caulked ;  they  are  sometimes 
flush  decked,  in  other  instances  fitted  with  a  poop,  bridge- 
house  and  a  forecastle,  or  with  a  shelter  deck  or  shade 
deck  above  the  upper  deck. 

The  scantlings  of  materials  are  of  the  heaviest  de- 


scription,  being   regulated   by    the    dimensions   of    hull, 
measured  to  height  of  upper  deck. 

This  class  of  vessel  is  intended  for  any  description 
of  cargo,  and  for  employment  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

I5e.     Spar-Decked  Vessels 

These  are  vessels  having  also  three  tiers  of  beams  like 
a  three-decked  ship,  with  generally  two  decks  laid  and 
caulked. 

They  are  of  lighter  construction  than  the  former,  the 
scantlings  of  materials  being  principally  regulated  by  the 
dimensions  of  hull,  measured  to  the  height  of  middle 
deck. 

This  class  of  vessel  is  usually  constructed  for  special 
trades. 

i5f.     Awning-Decked  Vessels 

These  vessels  have  a  superstructure  above  the  main 
deck,  of  which  the  scantlings  of  material  are  inferior  to 
the  topsides,  deck  beams,  and  deck-flat,  in  a  spar-decked 
vessel  of  similar  dimensions. 

An  awning  deck  may  be  fitted  to  vessels  with  either 
one,  two  or  three  decks;  and  the  scantlings  of  material 
of  hull  are  regulated  by  the  dimensions  of  vessel,  with- 
out reference  to  the  added  awning  deck. 

The  space  or  capacity  between  the  awning  deck  and 
the  deck  below  is  generally  intended  for  the  stowage  of 
light  cargo,  or  for  the  use  of  passengers,  etc. 

i5g.     Partial  Awning-Decked  Vessels 

These  are  vessels  in  which  the  upper  deck  is  only 
partially  covered  by  a  deck  of  light  construction,  having 
the  scantlings  of  material  similar  to  those  in  a  complete 
awning-decked  vessel. 

i5h.     Shelter-Decked  Vessels 

These  are  vessels  with  exposed  (or  weather)  decks, 
of  a  lighter  construction  than  required  for  awning-decked 
vessels,  the  topsides  between  the  upper  and  shelter  decks, 
are  closed-in ;  but  the  shelter  deck  is  sometimes  fitted 
with  ventilation  openings. 

151.     Shade-Deck  Vessels 

These  are  vessels  with  a  very  light  exposed  or  weather 
deck  above  the  upper  deck ;  this  shade  deck  generally 
extends  over  the  whole  length  of  upper  deck,  and  is  not 
enclosed  at  sides  above  the  main  rail  or  bulwark;  it  is 
used  as  a  protection  from  sun  or  rain. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


149 


15J.     Flush-Decked  Vessels 
These  vessels  have  a  continuous  upper  deck,  without 
poop,  bridge-house,  or  forecastle ;  spar  and  awning-decked 
vessels  are  generally  flush  decked  (see  Fig.  142). 


15m.     Structure  and  House  Arrangements  Named 

Below  I  illustrate  and  describe  structural  details  and 

deckhouse  arrangements  that  influence  type  and  classifi- 


cation. 


-i 


^:::zf 


At 


H 


^ACMIfCKt^ 


Tl 


J* 


Tt^ee^   Be 


0£eP  r^HK 


Fig.   135 


FORM  F£AK  TANK 


A^TMM  ^MAH    I 


^ 


FOftt    ^£*K    rANX 


15k.     Well-Decked  Vessels 
These  are  vessels  having  long  poops  or  raised  quarter- 
deck, and  topgallant  forecastle;  the  space  between  these 
structures  forming  the  well  (see  Fig.  135). 


RQD 

f    ff    / 

T. 

c 

V 

1    '                                     MAlf^ 

DECK 

A 

/ 

HOLO 

"fACMt, 

■/eiTY 

HOt.O 

/     / 

Afr 

e. 

r    fe. 

.n^^ 

-y,~\ 

—^ 

^O.m.t^MTmA    m*LLA,tT    tammi' 

Fig.   138 


Fig.  135  is  an  illustration  of  a  one-deck  steamer  with 
short  raised  quarter-deck,  enclosed  bridge-house  and 
topgallant  forecastle.  The  illustration  shows  a  vessel 
without  double  bottom,  but  fitted  with  fore-peak,  after- 
peak  and  deep  tanks. 


^Oftt      *>*  * 


Fig.  136 

15I.  Ship  With  a  Hurricane  Deck 
This  is  a  vessel  with  a  light  deck  or  platform  over 
erections  on  the  upper  deck ;  it  has  generally  a  breadth 
from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  or  sometimes  the  whole 
breadth  of  ship,  running  frequently  all  fore-and-aft,  and 
is  used  for  a  promenade,  etc.,  in  passenger  ships  (see  Fig. 
137)- 


wK 


A^tttt  FMAtf 


-X 


'tAcmnM/ty 


T 


Fig.   139 


Fig.  136  shows  a  similar  arrangement  of  deckhouses 
but  vessel  has  a  double-bottom  tank  in  place  of  deep  tank 
amidships. 

Fig.  137  shows  a  two-deck  steamer  with  full  poop, 
enclosed  bridge-houses  and  topgallant  forecastle.  This 
vessel  has  double  bottom  and  peak  tanks. 


^ 


ATAC  **  /  «/*-  K  Y 


MAIH , BeCK 


± 


AFTmK     FMAK 


Fig.   137 


FOKE    P£A, 


^ 


A^TMA     t^A 


Fig.   140 


FOKt     fMAif 


Fig.  142.     200-Foot   Flnsh   Decked    OU-EnRined    Wooden   Cargo   Vessel  From  Desifi^ns  b?  J.  MnrraT  Watts  For  East  India  Trade 


'50 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.   143. 


Cbibiabos,  Boy  H.  Beattie,  Milton  and  HaTerbill,  Four  Ships  Built  by  L.  H.  Sbattuck,  Inc.,  at  Portsmouth,  at  the  Dock  Fitting  Out 

With  Elgglng,  Joiner  Work,  Etc. 


Fig.  138  shows  a  steamship  with  long  full  poop  deck, 
enclosed  bridge-houses  and  topgallant  forecastle.  This 
vessel  has  double  bottom  and  peak  tanks. 

Fig.  139  shows  steamship  with  long  raised  quarter- 
deck, enclosed  bridge-houses  and  topgallant  forecastle. 
Double  bottom  and  peak  tanks  are  shown. 

Fig.  140  shows  a  steamer  having  hurricane  deck, 
shade  deck,  and  lower  decks.  Double-bottom  tanks  as 
well  as  peak  tanks  are  also  shown.  This  arrangement 
of  decks  is  generally  used  in  passenger  vessels. 


^ 


■  i>i/c     ^iiSML. 


Fig.   141 

Fig.  141  shows  sailing  vessel  with  raised  quarter- 
deck, forecastle,  upper  and  lower  decks.  Fore  and  after- 
peak  tanks  are  fitted,  therefore  this  arrangement  of  tanks 
indicates  that  vessel  is  of  steel  construction. 

Figs.  143  to  155  are  illustrations  of  various  types 
of  vessels. 


US  S.  Constitution 


iiflLcd    ^  rr    ,.^.  I  -^^ 


Fig.   144 


Fig.  115.     Constitution  as  Slie  Now  Is  at  tbe  Boston  Navy  Yard 


Tig.  146.     Steam  Yacht  Vanadls,  Built  For  C.  K.  O.  Billings,  Sold  to  tbe  Bussian  Oovernment 


Fig.  146a.     52-Foot  Hydro-Aeroplane  Tender,  Designed  by  J.  Murray  Watts 


Length   52  feet 

Breadth    14     " 


Fig.  147.     XS.  S.   S.  South  Carolina,  a  Battlaship  of  the  Dieadnougbt  Type,  Which  Mounts  Eight  12-Iuch  Guns  and  Many  Smaller  Ones 


Fig.  148.     XT.  S.  Mine-Sweeper  Fellcan  Built  by  the  Qas  Engine  &  Power  Company,  Launched  June  15,   1918 


Fig.   149.     Faith,  the   First  Concrete-Built  Ocean  Steamer,   Starting  Off  From  San  Francisco  for  Seattle,  Tacoma  and  Vancouver 


Fig.   160.     Faith,'  6,000-Ton    Concrete    Vessel,    Launched    1918    From   the    San   Francisco   Shipbuilding    Company's   Yard    at   Redwood   City,   Cal. 


/V<| 

.■ 

..,  /\ 

y/\ 

/ 

//     \ 

/ 

// 

/ 

// 

/ 

/  / 

"  / 

' 

'   1 

Fig.   151.     Iskum,   an   80-Foot  Fishing  Schooner  Built  From  Designs  by    Edson  B.  Schock  and  Fitted  With  a  CorUss  Gas  Engine 


Fig.  155.     Ship  Bickmars  on  the  Delaware 


Fig.   162.     Northeast  End  Light  Vessel 


Fig.   154.     Motorshlp   James   Timpson.   Built  by  the  Standifer  Company, 
Designed  by  Cox  &  Stevens 


Fig.  153.     Margaret  Haskell 


Chapter  XVI 

Anchor,  Chains  and  Equipment 


Every  vessel  must  be  properly  equipped  for  sea,  and 
while  the  amount  of  equipment  necessary  varies  in  each 
type  and  size  of  vessel,  the  greater  part  of  equipment 
used  on  seagoing  vessels,  as  well  as  the  sizes,  dimen- 
sions and  amount  of  equipment  that  must  be  carried  on 
each  vessel,  has  been  standardized.  Equipment  upon 
which  the  safety  of  a  vessel  or  its  crew  depends,  such  as 
anchors,  chain,  boats  and  their  equipment,  navigating 
and  directing  instruments,  etc.,  is  defined  in  Govern- 
ment regulations  and  by  rules  laid  down  by  classifica- 
tion societies,  and  no  vessel  is  allowed  to  put  to  sea 
without  being  equipped  in  accordance  with  the  rules.  Of 
all  equipment,  anchors,  chains  and  methods  of  handling 
them,  the  steering  apparatus,  and  navigating  instru- 
ments are  the  most  important,  and  next  to  these  comes 
the  lifeboat  and  its  equipment. 

i6a.     Anchors 

The  number  and  sizes  of  anchors  that  must  be  car- 
ried depends  upon  size  and  type  of  vessel,  and  the 
service  it  will  be  engaged  in.  By  size  of  vessel  is  meant 
tonnage  as  computed  by  rules  of  the  classification  so- 
cieties. 

In  general  it  can  be  said  that  all  seagoing  vessels, 
except  the  very  smallest,  must  carry  three  or  more 
anchors  and  each  of  these  must  be  of  a  certain  size  and 
type. 

On  Tables  i6A  and  i6B  (page  i66)  is  given  lists  of 
weights  and  kinds  of  anchors  that  must  be  carried  on 
steam  and  sailing  vessels  of  named  tonnage. 


As  bowers,  stream  and  kedge  anchors  are  mentioned, 
1  will  illustrate  and  describe  each  kind. 

Bowers  are  the  largest  and  principal  anchors  carried 
and  they  can  be  either  stockless,  patent  with  hinged 
flukes,  or  common  with  wood  or  steel  stock. 

Fig.  156  is  an  illustration  of  a  stockless  anchor. 
( Durkee. ) 

As  this  type  of  anchor  is  stockless  the  shank  can 
be  housed  in  hawse  pipe  and  anchor  carried  in  manner 
shown  on  Fig.  157.  Anchors  of  this  kind  are  generally 
used  on  all  modern  vessels  because  they  are  much  easier 
to  handle,  stow  better  and  are  just  as  efficient  and  strong 
as  the  older  type  anchors  with  stocks. 

On  Fig.  158  a  common  bower  with  wood  stock  is 
shown,  and  on  Fig.  159  a  patent  bower  with  hinged  arm 
and  flukes. 

The  common  bower  anchor  with  wood  stock  is  now 
seldom  used  except  on  sailing  vessels,  but  the  bower 
with  iron  stock,  and  bower  with  hinged  arm  and  fluke  is 
frequently    used    on    smaller    vessels.     These    types    of 


Fig.  166.     Stockless  Anchor 


Fig.  157.     Stockless  Anchor  in  Place 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


157 


BOWER  (common) 

\' Anchor-ring 


Fig.   158 

anchors  must  be  stowed  on  a  properly  prepared  platform, 
called  a  bill  board,  in  the  manner  shown  on  Fig.  i6o, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  install  proper  cat  and  fish  tackles 
and  davits  or  an  anchor  crane  for  hoisting  anchor  to  its 
stowage  position.  Anchor  davits  and  falls  are  shown  in 
position  on   Fig.    i6o. 

The  smaller  stream  and  kedge  anchors  carried  on 
vessels  are  similar  in  shape  to  bowers.  On  Fig.  i6i 
anchors  of  this  kind  are  shown. 

i6b.     Hawse  Pipes 

I  have  mentioned  hawse  pipes,  so  I  will  now  describe 
and  illustrate  them. 

Hawse  pipes  are  fitted  at  each  side  of  bow,  their  use 
being  to  afford  a  proper  opening  for  passage  of  chain 
cable  to  which  anchors  are  attached. 

In  wooden  and  steel  vessels  it  is  necessary  to  strongly 
reinforce  the  fr-aming  where  hawse  pipes  pass  through 
framing  and  planking  and  to  securely  bolt  hawse  pipes  to 
this  reinforcing. 

Hawse  pipes  for  use  with  stockless  anchors  always 
have  opening  through  them  sufficiently  large  to  allow 
stock  of  anchor  to  pass  through  it.  On  Fig.  162  the 
hawse  pipes  for  a  pair  of  stockless  anchors  are  clearly 
shown  in  position. 

And  on  Fig.  201,  profile  view,  the  direction  of  lead 


of  hawse  pipes  is  clearly  indicated  by  dotted  lines  at 
bow. 

Hawse  pipes  are  made  of  cast-iron  and  consist  of 
two  pieces,  the  outer  flange  with  pipe  attached,  and  the 
inner  or  deck  flange.  The  outer  flange  is  carefully 
fitted  to  planking  because  it  must  make  a  watertight 
joint,  and  after  pipe  is  in  place  th§  inner  flange  is  fitted 
around  inner  end  of  pipe  and  joint  caulked  tight.  The 
outer  flange  is  securely  fastened  to  hull  with  bolts 
closely  spaced  (see  bolt  holes  on  Fig.  162)  and  inner 
flange  is  secured  to  deck  in  like  manner. 

As  there  is  considerable  wear  on  flanges  and  pipe  of 
a  hawse  pipe,  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  ample  thick- 
ness of  metal  in  casting,  especially  along  lower  portion 
of  pipe  and  outer  flange,  because  it  is  here  that  greatest 
amount  of  friction  occurs  when  chain  is  being  let  out, 
or  hauled  up,  or  vessel  is  riding  at  anchor. 

On  the  following  table  I  give  diameter  of  pipe  and 
thickness  of  metal  for  hawse  pipes  of  vessels  carrying 
anchors  with  stock. 


TABLE  16C 

Size  and 

Thickness  of  Iron 

Hawse  Pi 

PE 

FOR  Cables 

OF 

Each 

Size 

Thickness  o 

Thickness  of 

Iron  in  the 

Iron  in  the 

Size  o( 

Body  of  the 

Size  of 

size  of 

Bod 

y  of  the 

Size  of  Chain 

Hawse  Pipe 

Pipe  and  of 

Chain 

Hawse  Pipe 

Pipe 

and  of 

Cable 

in  tlie  Clear 

the  Flange 

Cable 

in 

the  Clear 

the 

Flange 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

2Vs 

21% 

iy2 

I  ¥2 

13% 

I 

2 

18% 

1% 

1% 

12% 

% 

1% 

17% 

1% 

1% 

11% 

% 

1% 

15% 

1% 

1% 

10% 

% 

1% 

14% 

1% 

I 

9 

% 

For  stockless  anchors  the  diameter  of  opening  must 
be  increased  considerably  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  in- 
crease thickness  of  metal. 

The  outside  diameter  of  flange  should  be  sufficiently 


BOWER  (patent) 


iTonAntli 


Fig.   159 


158 


F»»  »63 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Fid   160 


greater  than  outside  diameter  of  pipe  to  insure  tiiat  all 
fastenings  will  go  into  solid  wood  (or  metal). 

Do  not  confuse  hawse  pipes  with  the  chain  pipes  that 
lead  from  deck  to  chain  locker. 

i6b\     Chain   Pipes 

After  anchor  chain  has  passed  through  hawse  pipe, 
it  is  led  around  wild-cat  of  anchor  windlass  and  from 
there  passes  through  chain  pipes,  let  into  deck,  into  chain 
locker.  On  Fig.  163  is  shown  cross-section  view  of  chain 
pipe  and  on  Fig.  164  the  chain  pipes  are  clearly  shown 
in  position  under  windlass. 

i6c.     Anchor  Chain 

Chain  is  now  universally  used  with  anchors  for  an- 
choring a  vessel.  The  kind  of  chain  used  is  stud-linked 
and  diameter  of  material  of  which  links  are  made  de- 
termines size.  Each  vessel  must  have  a  certain  speci- 
fied amount  of  chain  for  each  anchor,  the  amount  and 
diameter  varying,  as  with  anchors,  with  tonnage  of  ves- 
sels. On  Tables  16A,  B,  is  given  diameter  and  length 
of  chain  specified  by  classification  societies'  rules,  and 
on  Fig.  165  is  shown  a  portion  of  anchor  chain  properly 
shackled  and  fitted  with   swivel. 

For  convenience  in  handling,  anchor  chain  comes  in 
lengths,  several  of  which  are  fastened  together  with 
shackles  to  form  a  cable.  The  first  "shot",  or  length, 
is  usually  a  short  one  and  has  attached  to  it  a  swivel. 
Anchor  is  shackled  to  chain  and  inboard  end  of  chain  is 
secured  to  a  heavy  beam  and  eyebolt  placed  in  chain 
locker  for  that  purpose. 

i6c\     Chain  Locker 

Chain  is  stowed  in  a  properly  prepared  locker  built 
in  bow  of  vessel  and  this  locker  must  be  sufficiently  large 
to  stow  each  cable  separately  and  there  must  be  a  divi- 
sion or  partition  between  the  chains. 

A  certain  amount. of  room  is  required  to  stow  a  chain 
cable,  the  amount  varying  with  diameter  of  chain  and 
its  length.  On  Table  16D  I  give  space  required  to 
properly  stow  50  fathoms  of  chain  of  named  diameters. 


TABLE  16D 
Space  Required  to  Stow  Roughly  50  Fathoms  of  Chain  Cable 


Diameter 
Ins. 

2% 

2% 

2 

1% 

1% 

1% 

1% 


Cubic  Feet 

Diameter 

Required 

Ini. 

89.83 

1% 

83.84 

1V4. 

66.75 

1% 

60.19 

I 

54.01 

% 

46.16 

% 

39.19 

a 

Cubic  Feet 
Required 

32.80 
26.20 
20.96 
17.30 
14.24 

"•73 
8.26 


i6d.     Anchor  Windlass 

An  anchor  windlass  is  used  to  assist  in  hoisting 
anchor.  This  windlass  can  be  operated  by  power  or  by 
hand. 

On  sailing  vessels  hand-operated  anchor  windlasses 
are  installed  on  forward  deck  and  operated  by  means  of 
a  geared  brake  lever,  or  by  hand-spikes  inserted  in  open- 
ings left  for  that  purpose. 

On  Fig.  166  is  shown  three  types  of  hand-operated 
anchor  windlass  installed  in  sailing  vessels  and  on  Fig. 
167  details  of  one  of  the  types,  with  parts  marked  for 
identification,  are  shown. 

Below  I  give  list  of  names  of  parts  of  windlass  shown 
on  Fig.   167. 

Hand-Operated  Anchor  Windlass 
Windlass  —  carrick-bitts  —   x 
—  side  bitts  —  2 
cheeks  of  carrick  bitts  — 3 
standard  knees  of  carrick- 
bitts  —  4 


—  connecting  rods  —  g 

—  purchase  rods 

—  crosshead  —  8 

—  ends;  —  heads  —  5 

—  hand  levers  —  13 


main  piece  of  — 

—  pawls  —  10 

—  pawl  bitt  — ■  I 

—  pawl  rim;  — •  pawl 
rack  —  II 

—  purchase  rims  —  12 
spindle  of  — 

strong  back  of  a  —  7 
iron   whelps   on  —  6 
wood  lining  on  — 


i6d\  Steam-Operated  Anchor  Windlasses 
On  Fig.  168  is  shown  a  modern  power-operated  an- 
chor windlass  installed  on  forecastle  deck  of  a  motor- 
ship.  You  will  note  by  referring  to  illustration  (which 
is  a  bow  view,  looking  aft)  that  anchor  chains,  after 
passing  through  hawse  pipes  (as  this  is  a  photo  of  ship 
shown  on  plans  Fig.  201,  you  can  see  location  of  hawse 
pipes  by  referring  to  these  plans)  pass  through  con- 
trollers placed  on  deck  a  little  distance  aft  of  deck  end 
of  hawse  pipe.     Controllers  are  for  the  purpose  of  con- 


STREAM-ANCHOR. 


KEOGC. 


GRAPNEL. 


Tit.  161 


Fig.  162.     Hawse  Pipes  on  Agawam 


i6o 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.   165.     Anchor  Chain 

trolling  chain  should  brake  on  windlass  become  defec- 
tive, or  when  vessel  is  riding  at  anchor.  From  con- 
trollers the  chain  passes  over  wild-cats  of  windlass  and 
from  thence  through  chain  pipes,  placed  immediately 
below  wild-cats,  into  chain  lockers. 

On  Fig.  164  is  shown  details  of  one  type  of  steam- 
operated  anchor  windlass  with  principal  parts  identified 
by  numerals.     Below  I  give  names  of  parts. 


1.  Hand   power   levers. 

2.  Cross-head. 

3.  Warping   ends. 

4.  Side   bitts. 

5.  Side   bitt   keeps. 


6.  Screw    brake    nut. 

7.  Cable   lifter. 

8.  Pawl   rack. 

9.  Main    cone    driving    wheel. 
10.  Cross-head   bracket. 


11.  Center  bitt. 

12.  Center    bitt   keep. 

13.  Chain  pipes. 

14.  Cable  relievers. 

15.  Bedplate. 


16.  Chain      wheel      for      messenger 

from   steam   winch. 

17.  Clutch      for      attached      strain 

power. 

18.  Gearing    for    steam    power. 


i6e.     Deck  Winches 

Modern  vessels  have  power-operated  deck  winches 
installed  convenient  to  hatches  and  booms  used  for  cargo. 
On  Fig.  169  is  shown  a  steam  deck  winch,  principal 
parts  being  identified  by  number,  and  on  deck  of  vessel 
shown  on  Fig.  170  a  deck  winch  can  be  seen  installed  in 
proper  location. 

Below  I  give  names  of  parts  identified  on  Fig.  169. 


Warping    ends. 
Main    spur-wheel. 

Barrel. 
Barrel    shaft. 
Small  spur-wheel. 
Clutch    lever. 
Cylinders. 
Steam    chest 


10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 


Stay   or  tie-rod. 
Steam  pipe. 
Exhaust  pipe. 
Reversing    lever. 
Base    plate. 
Stop  valve. 
Connecting    rod. 
Piston    rod. 


A  hand-operated  deck  winch  is  shown  on  Fig.  171 
and  below  I  give  names  of  parts  identified  by  number 
on  the  illustration. 


Head  of   Bark   Oreyhound 


Deck  of  Whaling  Brig  Viola,   Showing  Windlass 


SS-^HIi 

Deck  of  Brig  Viola 


Head  of  Bark  Wanderer 


Fig.   166 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


i6i 


Clutch  lever. 
Brake. 
Barrels. 
Pinion. 

Spur    wheels. 


6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 

)0. 


Framing. 
Ratchet   wheel. 
Pawls. 
Tie-rod. 
Warping   ends. 


i6f.  H.-VND  Pump 
On  Fig.  172  is  shown  details  of  hand-operated  bilge 
pump,  each  principal  part  being  identified  by  name. 
Every  vessel  must  be  equipped  with  a  proper  number  of 
pumps  for  pumping  water  out  of  bilges.  In  sailing 
vessels  these  pumps  are  generally  located  on  deck,  are 
hand-operated,  and  of  type  shown  on  illustration,  but  in 
steam  and  motor  vessels  the  bilge  pumps  are  located  in 
engine  rooms  and  operated  by  steam  or  other  power. 
In  all  cases  the  pump  suctions  are  led  to  properly  located 
wells  in  which  suction  boxes  with  strainers  are  located. 
If  a  vessel  is  divided  into  a  number  of  compartments  by 
watertight  bulkheads  the  suction  pipes  are  led  through 
stuffing  boxes  in  bulkheads  and  each  compartment  is 
fitted  with  a  separate  suction,  and  valves  to  shut  off  each 
set  of  pipes  are  located  in  engine  room.  In  the  case  of 
a  hand  pump  the'  water  is  discharged  directly  on  deck 
and  runs  overboard  through  the  scuppers,  but  all  steam 
and  power-operated  bilge  pumps  are  fitted  with  discharge 
pipes  that  lead  from  pump  through  side  of  vessel  above 
the  water-line. 

i6g.     Sounding  Pipes 
Sounding  pipes  must  be  located   in  every   compart- 
ment.    These  pipes  extend   from  upper  deck  to  lowest 


part  of  bilge  in  each  compartment,  to  permit  a  sounding 
of  amount  of  water  in  bilges  to  be  taken  without  it  being 
necessary  to  go  into  hold.  The  pipes  are  usually  led  to 
upper  deck  and  fitted  with  a  tight  flush  cap.  By  remov- 
ing cap  a  rod,  called  a  sounding  rod,  can  be  lowered 
through  pipe  into  bilge  and  if  there  is  any  water  in  bilge, 
it  will  wet  rod,  and  by  lifting  rod  and  measuring  depth 
of  wet  portion  an  accurate  estimate  can  be  made  of 
amount  of  water  in  bilges. 

i6h.     Capstan 
On  Fig.   173  is  shown  hand-operated  deck  capstans 
with  principal  parts  marked  for  identification. 

i6i.     Steering  Gear 
On   Fig.    174   is   shown   details   of   a   hand-operated 
steering  gear  and  below  I  give  list  of  parts. 


1.  Standard. 

2.  Spindle. 

3.  Yoke. 

4.  Nut. 

5.  .\rm. 


6.  Guide    rods. 

7.  Cross-head. 

8.  Yoke   bolt. 

9.  Rudder   wheel. 
10.  Spokes. 


i6j.     Bo.\ts  and  Their  Equipment 
The  number  of  boats  each  vessel  must  carry,  their 
capacity  and  equipment,  is  specified   in  the  regulations 
governing   equipment    of    vessels    which    are    issued   by 
every  government. 

Below  I  give  details  of  equipment  that  must  be  car- 
ried in  lifeboats  placed  on  a  seagoing  vessel. 


1 62 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Fig.   168.     Windlass  and  Foredeck  of  the  James  Timpson 

Equipment  for  Lifeboats 

All  lifeboats  on  ocean  steam  vessels  shall  -be  equipped 
as  follows: 

A  properly  secured  life-line  the  entire  "length  on  each 
side,  festooned  in  bights  not  longer  than  3  feet,  with  a 
seine  float  in  each  bight. 

One  painter  of  manila  rope  of  not  less  than  2^  inches 
in  circumference  and  of  suitable  length.  ^ 

A  full  complement  of  oars  and  two  spare  oars. 

One  set  and  a  half  of  thole  pins  or  rowlocks  attached 
to  the  boat  with  separate  chains. 

One  steering  oar  with  rowlock  or  becket  and  one 
rudder  with  tiller  or  yoke  and  yoke-lines. 

One  boathook  attached  to  a  staflf  of  suitable  length. 

Two  live-preservers. 

Two  hatchets. 

One  galvanized  iron   bucket   with   lanyard   attached. 

One  bailer. 


Where  automatic  plugs  are  not  provided  there  shall 
be  two  plugs  secured  with  chains  for  each  drain  hole. 

One  efficient  liquid  compass  with  not  less  than  a  2- 
inch  card. 

One  lantern  containing  sufficient  oil  to  burn  at  least 
nine  hours  and  ready  for  immediate  use. 

One  can  containing  one  gallon  illuminating  oil. 

One  box  of  friction  matches  wrapped  in  a  water- 
proof package  and  carried  in  a  box  secured  to  the  under- 
side of  stern  thwart. 

A  wooden  breaker  or  suitable  tank  fitted  with  a 
siphon,  pump,  or  spigot  for  drawing  water  and  con- 
taining at  least  one  quart  of  water  for  each  person. 

Two  enameled  drinking  cups. 

A  watertight  receptacle  containing  2  tb  avoirdupois  of 
provisions  for  each  person.  These  provisions  may  be 
■hard  bread.  The  receptacle  shall  be  of  metal,  fitted  with 
an  opening  in  the  top  not  less  than  5  inches  in  diameter, 
properly  protected  by  a  screw  cap  made  of  heavy  cast 
brass,  with  machine  thread  and  an  attached  double 
toggle,  seating  to  a  pliable  rubber  gasket,  which  shall 
insure  a  tight  joint,  in  order  to  properly  protect  the  con- 
tents of  the  can. 

One  canvas  bag  containing  sailmaker's  palm  and 
needles,  sail  twine,  marline,  and  marline  spike. 

A  watertight  metal  case  containing  twelve  self-ignit- 
ing red  lights  capable  of  burning  at  least  two  minutes. 

A  sea-anchor. 

A  vessel  containing  one  gallon  of  vegetable  or  animal 
oil,  so  constructed  that  the  oil  can  be  easily  distributed 
on  the  water  and  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  attached  to 
the  sea-anchor. 

A  mast  or  masts  with  one  good  sail  at  least  and 
proper  gear  for  each  (this  does  not  apply  to  power 
lifeboat j,  the  sail  and  gear  to  be  protected  by  a  suitable 


Tig.  170.     Deck  Views  of  Motorship  James  Timpson,  Built  From  Designs  by  Cox  &   Stevens 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


163 


canvas  cover.     In  case  of  a  steam  vessel  which  carries  All  loose  equipment  must  be  securely  attached  to  the 

passengers  in  the  North  Atlantic,  and  is  provided  with  boat  to  which  it  belongs. 

a  radio-telegraph  installation,  all  the  lifeboats  need  not  Lifeboats   of   less   than    i8o  cubic    feet   capacity   on 

be  equipped  with  masts  and  sails.     In  this  case  at  least  pleasure   steamers  are  not   required   to   be   equipped   as 

one  of  the  boats  on  each  side  shall  be  so  equipped.  above. 


On   the    following   list   is   given   names   of   principal   types  and  parts  of  boats  carried  on  vessels: 


Different   Kinds   of    Boats 
Cutter 
Gig 

Launch 
Steam  Launch 
Lifeboat 
Longboat 
Pinnace 
Whaleboat 

Details  and  Appurtenances 

OF  Boats 
Boat 

—  awning 
back-board  in  a  — 

—  bailer 
carvel-built  — 
clinch-built    — 


Boat 


—  chock 

—  chock  skids 

—  compass 

—  cover 

—  davit 

—  davit  tackle 
foot  grating  in  a 

—  gripe 

—  hook 

tank  of  a  {life)  - 

—  mast 
— ■  oar 

— 's  painter 
pkig  of  a  — ■ 
rowlock  of   a  — 
row  port  of  a  — 


Boat 

—  rudder 

—  rudder  tiller 
— ■  rudder  yoke 

—  rudder  yoke-line 

—  sail 

—  skids 

swifter  of  a  ^- 
thole-board   of  a  — 
thole-pin  of  a  — 
thwart  of  a  — 
wash-board  of  a  — 

Davit 
Davit,  anchor  —  ;  cat  — 
boat  — 

fish  — 

—  guy 

—  socket 


i6k:.     Equipment 

For  the  convenience  of  the  reader  I  list  below  names  of  a  large  number  of  pieces  of  equipment  generally  car- 
ried on  seagoing  vessels: 

Caulking 

-T-  iron 
•    —  mallet 
Chain-hook 
Chair 
Chart 

—  case;  —  chest 
Chinsing-iron    (caulker's  tool) 
Chisel 

hollow  — 
mortise  — 
Chronometer 

—  chest 
Clock;  Time-piece 
Compass 

azimuth  — 
variation   — 
boat's  — 
—  box 
polinarus 
standard  — 
steering  —  • 
Cork-fender 
Cover 

capstan  — 
skylight  — 
ventilator  — 


Accommodation   ladder; 

Bell 

Gangway  ladder 

—  crank 

.■\nemometer 

—   rope 

Awning 

Berth 

boat's  —   ; 

Binnacle 

—  boom 

—  cover 

bridge  —    ;     bridge 

—  lamp 

house  — 

Blue-light 

crowfoot  of  an  — 

curtain  of  an  — 

Boatswain's  chair 

forecastle  — 

Buckets 

lacing  of  an  — 

—  fire 

lacing-holes  of  an  — 

—  rack 

main-deck    — 

Bunk    (sailor's) 

poop  — 

Bunting 

quarter-deck  — 

Buoy 

ridge  of  an  — 

anchor  — 

ridge  hnmg  of  an  — 

cork  — 

ridge  rope  of  an  —    ^ 

life  — 

—  stanchion 

—  sling 

Axe;  —  handle 

sounding  — 

Ballast 

Burgee 

Barometer ;   .'\neroid  — 

Can-hooks 

Belaying-pin ;   Jack-pin ;    Tack- 

Canvas 

pin 

Cask 

Bell 

Cat-head  stopper 

—  cover 

Caulking 

i64 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Cover 

wheel  — 
winch  — 

Crow-bar 

Dogs ;  Cant-hooks 

Dunnage;  —  wood 

Ensign 

Fair-leader 

Fender 

rope  — 
wooden  — 

Fid    (saihnaker's) 
splicing  — ■ 
turning  — 

Fish-hook 

Flag;  Colors 

—  chest 

—  staff 

Foghorn 

Fore-lock;  Key 

Gimblet 

Grating 

Grindstone 

Grommet 

Hammock 

Hand-cuffs 

Hand-hook 

Hand-spike 

Hank 

Harness  cask 

Hatchet 

Hen-coop 

Hinge 

Holystone 

Horsing-iron    {caulker's    tool) 

Hose 

canvas  — 

deck  wash  — 

india  rubber  — 

leather  — 

scupper  —  / 

Hose-wrench 
Ladder 

forecastle  — 

hold  — 

poop  — 

raised  quarter-deck  — 

rope  —   ;  side  — 
Lamp 
Lantern 

globe  — 

signal  — 
Lead  (sounding) 

deep-sea   — 

hand  — 

—  line 

—  line  marks  and  deeps 
Leather;  —  pump  — 
Life-belt;  Life-buoy 


Light,    anchor    —     ;     Anchor- 
lantern 
mast-head  — 

—  masthead  lantern 
Lightning-conductor 

Line 

furling  — 
hambro  — 
hauling  — 
heaving  — 
house  — 
life  — 

Lizard 
Log 

—  board 

—  book 

—  glass 
ground  — • 

—  line 

—  line  runner 
patent  — 

—  reel 

—  ship 

Making-iron    (caulker's   tool) 

Mallet;  serving  — 

Manrope  (o/  bowsprit) 

Man  rope  (on  a  yard) 

Manropes  (of  gangway) 

Marline 

Marline  spike 

Maul 

Medicine  chest 

Mop 

Nails 

Nautical  almanac 

Needle 

bolt  rope  —  ;  roping  — 

sail  — 
Night-glass ;    Night-telescope 
Oakum 

thread  of  — 

twisted  — 
Padlocks 
Paint  brush 

Palm    (sailmaker's  tool) 
Parbuckle 
Parcelling 
Pennant 
Pitch 

—  ladle 
— •  mop 

—  pot 
Plane 
Plug 
Pricker 
Provisions 
Raft;  saving  — 
Rasp;  wood  — 
Ratline;  Ratline  stuff 
Rave-hook;       Meaking-iron 

(caulker's  tool) 


Reeming-iron  (caulker's  tool) 
Ridge-rope    (life-line  stretched 

along  a  deck    during  bad 

weather) 
Rigging-screw 
Ring 
Roller  (over  which  ropes  are 

led,  to  prevent  chafing) 
Rope-yarn 
Sail-hook;  —  twine 
Sand-glass 
Saw ;  hand  — 
Scoop 
Scraper 
Screw-jack 

Scrubber ;   Hand-scrubber 
Seizing 

cross  — 

fiat  — 

racking  — 

rose  — 

tail  — 

throat  — 
Sennit 

common  — 

french  — 

round  — 

square  — 
Serving-board 
Sextant 
Shackle 

anchor  — 

—  bolt 

fore-lock  of  a  —  bolt 

joining  — 

mooring  — 

patent  — 
Shears ;    Sheers 
Shovel 

Side-light;  Side  lantern 

—  screen 

—  screen  stanchion 
Signal 

distress  — 

fog  — 

international    code    of  —  s 

night  — 

rocket  — 

Sling;  chain  — ;  rope  — 
Sounding-rod 

— •  machine 
Spanish  windlass 
Speaking  trumpet 
Spike 
Spunyarn 
Spy-glass 
Squillgee 

Stage;  triangular  — 
Standard 
Staple 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


165 


Stove 

Stopper 

Strop;   selvagee  — 

Swab 

Swinging  tray 

Swivel ;  chain  — 

mooring   — 
Tank ;  bread  — 

fresh-water  — 
Tar 

—  barrel 

—  bucket 


Tar 

—  brush 

Tarpaulin 

Telescope 

Thermometer 

Thimble 

Toggle 

Traverse-board 

Truck 

fair  lead  — 
parrel  — 

Jub 


Turtle-peg 
Twine 

Vane;  —  spindle 
Varnish ;    black  — 

bright  — 
Ventilator;  —  cowl 

—  socket   ■*. 
Water-cask 
Weather-board 
Weather-cloth 
Wedge 
Wind-sail 


1 61.  Stowage  of  Various  Cargoes 
Below  is  given  average  space  in  cubic  feet  required 
to  stow  named  kinds  of  cargo.  By  stowage  space  is 
meant  the  actual  number  of  cubic  feet  in  hold  of  vessel 
that  a  ton  of  named  cargo  requires.  This  is  always 
more  than  actual  bulk  of  a  ton  of  the  named  material 
because  some  space  is  taken  up  by  containers,  and  in 
addition  to  this  there  is  always  some  space  left  between 
packages. 

List  of  Hold  Space  Required  to  Stow  Cargo 

Cubic  Ft. 

to  the  Ton 

Stowed 

Wool     98 

Hemp,  loosely  packed  100 

Hemp,    compressed   in    bales    65 

Cotton    115 

Cotton,  compressed  in  modern  compressors 105 

Rice  in  bags    48 

Oats  in  bags   65 

Linseed    58 

Potatoes  in  bags   70 

Refined   sugar  in   bags    50 

Tea 90 

Grain  in   bulk   46 

Butter  in  kegs  58 


i66 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


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Chapter  XVII 

Resolution  and  Composition  of  Forces 


The  effects  of  the  different  forces  which  act  on  a 
piece  of  timber  at  rest  are  these — extension  and  com- 
pression in  the  direction  of  its  length,  lateral  compres- 
sion, and  torsion.  To  the  first,  is  opposed  cohesion;  to 
the  second,  stiffness ;  to  the  third,  transverse  strength ; 
and  to  the  fourth,  the  elasticity  of  torsion.  On  these 
resistances  of  materials,  direct  experiments  have  been 
made,  and  practical  formulae  for  calculating  them  have 
been  deduced. 

It  is  essential  that  an  accurate  idea  should  be  formed 
of  the  manner  in  which  several  forces  act  when  united 
in  their  effect,  and  I  shall  therefore  explain  the  principles 
of  the  composition  and  resolution  of  forces. 


If  a  (Fig.  la)  be  a  force  acting  on  a  body  in  the  di- 
rection of  line  a  b,  and  c  another  force  acting  on  the 
same  point  in  the  direction  of  line  c  b,  with  pressures  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  lines  a  b  and  c  b  respectively, 
then  the  body  will  be  affected  precisely  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  acted  on  by  a  single  force  d,  acting  in  the 
direction  d  b,  with  a  pressure  proportioned  to  the  line 
d  b,  which  is  the  diagonal  of  a  parallelogram  formed  on 
a  b,  c  b,  and  which  is  called  the  resultant  of  the  two 


forces  o  c.  In  like  manner,  if  the  forces  a,  c,  d  (Fig.  2a), 
act  on  a  body  b,  in  the  direction  of  lines  a  b,  d  b,  c  b, 
and  with  intensities  proportioned  to  the  length  of  these 
lines,  then  the  resultant  of  the  two  forces,  a  and  d,  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  diagonal  e  b  oi  the  parallelogram,  formed 
on  lines  a  b,  d  b,  and  the  resultant  of  this  new  force  e, 
and  the  third  force  c,  is  /  acting  in  the  direction  /  b, 
the  diagonal  formed  on  e  b,  c  b;  therefore,  /  b  expresses, 
in   direction   and    intensity,    the    resultant   of   the   three 


/^ 


/VJ2 


//(5-43^ 


forces  a,  d,  c.  A  simple  experiment  may  be  made  to 
prove  this.  Let  the  threads  a  b,  a  c  d,  a  e  f  (Fig.  3a) 
have  the  weights  b  d  f  appended  to  them,  and  let  the 
two  threads  a  c  d,  a  e  f  he  passed  over  the  pulleys  c  and  e; 
then  if  the  weight  b  be  greater  than  the  sum  of  d  f,  the 
assemblage  will  settle  itself  in  a  determinate  form,  de- 
pendent on  the  weights.  If  the  three  weights  are  equal, 
the  lines  a  c,  a  e  oi  the  threads  will  make  equal  angles 
with  a  b;  if  the  weights  d  f  and  b  be  respectively  6,  8, 
and  10,  then  the  angle  c  a  e  will  be  a  right  angle,  and 
the  lines  c  a,  e  a  will  be  of  the  respective  lengths  of  6 
and  8;  and  if  we  produce  c  a,  e  a  to  n  and  m,  and  com- 
plete the  parallelogram  a  n  o  m;  a  n,  a  m  will  also  be  6 
and  8,  and  the  diagonal  a  o  will  be  10.  The  action  of 
weight  b  in  the  direction  a  0  is  thus  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  combined  action  of  the  two  weights  d  f,  in  the 


i68 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


directions  c  a,  e  a;  and  if  we  produce  o  a  to  some  point 
k,  making  a  r,  a  s  equal  to  those  weights,  we  shall 
manifestly  have  a  k  equal  to  a  o.  Now,  since  it  is 
evident  that  the  weight  b,  represented  by  o  o,  would  just 
balance  another  weight  /,  pulling  directly  upwards  by 
means  of  the  pulley  k,  and  as  it  just  balances  the  two 
weights  d  f,  acting  in  the  directions  a  c,  a  e,  we  infer 
that  the  point  a  is  acted  on  in  the  same  manner  by  these 
weights  as  by  the  single  weight,  and  that  two  pressures 
acting  in  the  directions  and  with  the  intensities  a  c,  a  e 
are  equal  to  the  single  pressure  acting  in  the  direction 
and  with  the  intensity  a  k.  In  like  manner,  the  pressures 
a,  s  a  are  equivalent  to  n  a,  which  is  equal  and  oppo- 


//^-^ 


site  to  r  a;  also,  o  a,  r  a  are  equivalent  to  m  a,  which 
is  equal  and  opposite  to  5  a. 

In  the  case  of  a  load  w  (Fig.  4a)  pressing  on  the 
two  inclined  beams  h  c,  b  d,  which  abut  respectively  on 
the  points  c  and  d,  it  is  obvious  that  the  pressures  will 
be  in  the  directions  b  c,  b  d.  To  find  the  amounts  of 
these  pressures,  draw  vertical  line  b  e  through  the  center 
of  load,  and  give  it,  by  a  scale  of  equal  parts,  as  many 
units  of  length  as  there  are  units  of  weight  in  the  load 
w:  draw  e  f,  e  g  parallel  io  c  b,  d  b;  then  b  g,  measured 
on  the  same  scale,  will  give  the  amount  of  the  pressure 
sustained  by  b  c,  and  b  f  the  amount  sustained  by  b  d. 

The  amount  of  thrust,  or  pressure,  is  not  influenced 
by  the  lengths  of  pieces  b  e,  h  d.  But  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  although  the  pressure  is  not  modified  in 
its  amount  by  the  length,  it  is  very  much  modified  in 
its  efifects,  these  being  greatest  in  the  longest  piece. 
Hence,  great  attention  must  be  given  to  this  in  design- 
ing, lest  by  unequal  yielding  of  the  parts,  the  whole  form 
of  the  assemblage  be  changed,  and  strains  introduced 
which  had  not  been  contemplated. 

If  the  direction  of  the  beam  fc  d  be  changed  to 
that  shown  by  the  dotted  line  b  i,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
pressures  on  both  beams  are  very  much  increased,  and 
the  more  obtuse  the  angle  i  b  h  the  greater  the  strain. 


Chapter  XVIII 

Strength  and  Strain  of  Materials 


The  materials  employed  in  vessel  construction  are  ex- 
posed to  certain  forces,  which  tend  to  alter  their  molecu- 
lar constitution,  and  to  destroy  that  attraction  which 
exists  between  their  molecules,  named  cohesion. 

The  destructive  forces  in  timber  may  operate  in  the 
manners  following: 

I.  By  tension  in  the  direction  of  fibres  of  the  wood, 
producing  rupture  by  tearing  it  asunder. 

IL  By  compression  in  the  direction  of  fibres,  pro- 
ducing rupture  by  crushing. 

III.  By  pressure  at  right  angles  to  direction  of  fibres, 
or  transverse  strain,  which  breaks  it  across,  and  which, 
as  will  be  seen,  is  a  combination  of  the  two  former 
strains. 

IV.  By  torsion  or  wrenching. 

V.     By  tearing  the  fibres  asunder. 

Every  material  resists  with  more  or  less  energy,  and 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  these  causes  of  destruction. 

The  resistance  to  the  first-named  force  is  called  the 
resistance  to  extension,  or  simply,  cohesion ;  to  the 
■second,  the  resistance  to  compression ;  and  the  third,  the 
resistance  to  transverse  force.  The  measures  of  these 
resistances  are  the  efl^orts  necessary  to  produce  rupture 
by  extension,  compression,  or  transverse  strain. 

Those  materials  which,  when  they  have  been  sub- 
mitted to  a  certain  force  less  than  the  amount  of  their 
resistance,  return  to  their  normal  condition  when  that 
force  is  withdrawn,  are  termed  elastic.  The  knowledge 
of  the  elasticity  proper  to  any  body  gives  the  means  of 
calculating  the  amount  of  extension,  compression,  or 
flexure,  which  the  body  will  sustain  under  a  given  force. 

For  the  purposes  of  calculation,  it  is  convenient  to 
have  a  measure  of  the  resilience  or  elastic  power  of  a 
body  expressed  either  in  terms  of  its  own  substance,  or 
in  weight.  This  measure  is  termed  the  modulus  of 
elasticity  of  the  body. 

If  we  suppose  the  body  to  have  a  square  unit  of  sur- 
face, and  to  be  by  any  force  compressed  to  one-half  or 
extended  to  double  its  original  dimensions,  this  force  is 
the  modulus  of  the  body's  elasticity.  No  solid  sub- 
stance, it  may  at  once  be  conceived,  will  admit  of  such 
an  extent  of  compression  or  extension ;  but  the  expres- 
sion for  the  modulus  may  nevertheless  be  obtained  by 
calculation  on  the  data  afforded  by  experiment.  The 
moduli  for  various  kinds  of  woods  will  be  found  in 
Table  2,  column  7.     (See  p.  18  for  Table  2.) 

l8a.     /.     Resistance  to  Tension. 

Although,  mechanically  considered,  this  is  the  sim- 
plest strain  to  which  a  body  can  be  subjected,  it  is  yet  the 
one  in  regard  to  which   fewest  experiments  have  been 


made,  in  consequence  of  the  great  force  required  to  tear 
asunder  lengthways  pieces  of  timber  of  even  small  di- 
mensions. There  is,  too,  a  want  of  agreement  sufficiently 
battling  in  the  results  obtained  by  different  operators. 
The  results  of  several  experiments  are  given  in  the  table 
2,  column  4,  reduced  to  a  section  of  one  inch  square. 

Resistance  of  timber  to  compression  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  its  fibres. 
i8b.     //.     Resistance  to  Compression. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  rules  for  the  absolute  crush- 
ing force  of  timber.  Those  that  follow  are  applicable  to 
the  cases  of  posts  whose  length  exceeds  ten  times  their 
diameter,  and  which  yield  by  bending. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  post  that  will  sustain  a 
given  weight. 

j^ule. — Multiply  the  weight  in  lb  by  1.7  times  the 
value  of  e  (Table  2,  column  9)  ;  then  multiply  the  prod- 
uct by  the  square  of  length  in  feet,  and  the  fourth  root 
of  the  last  product  is  the  diameter  in  inches  recjuired. 

Examples. — i.  The  height  of  a  cylindrical  oak  post 
being  10  feet,  and  the  weight  to  be  supported  by  it 
10,000  ft,  required  its  diameter. 

The  tabular  value  of  e  for  oak  is  .0015 — 

therefore,  1.7  X  .0015  X  100  X  loooo  =  2550 
the  fourth  root  of  which  is  7. 106,  the  diameter  required. 

By  inverting  the  operation,  we  find  the  weight,  when 
the  dimensions  are  given. 

To  find  the  scantling  of  a  rectangular  post  to  sustain 
a  given  zveight. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  in  tb  by  the  square  of 
the  length  in  feet,  and  the  product  by  the  value  of  e: 
divide  this  product  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  the 
cube  root  of  the  quotient  will  be  the  depth  in  inches. 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  a  square  post  that  will 
sustain  a  given  weight. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  in  ft  by  the  square  of 
the  length  in  feet,  and  the  product  by  4  times  the  value 
of  e;  and  the  fourth  root  of  this  product  will  be  the 
diagonal  of  the  post  in  inches. 

To  find  the  stiff  est  rectangular  post  to  sustain  a  given 
Weight. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  in  ft  by  0.6  times  the 
tabular  value  of  e,  and  the  product  by  the  square  of  the 
length  in  feet ;  and  the  fourth  root  of  this  product  will  be 
the  least  side  in  inches :  divide  the  least  side  by  0.6  to 
obtain  the  greatest  side. 

Let  the  length  of  the  stiffest  rectangular  oak  post 
be  10  feet,  and  the  weight  to  be  supported  10,000  ft, 
required  the  side  of  the  post. 

0.6  X  .0015  X  10  X  10  X  loooo  =  900, 


I  JO 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


the  fourth  root  of  which  is  5.477,  the  least  side,  which, 
divided  by  0.6,  gives  9.13  as  the  greatest  side. 

i8c.  ///.  Resistance  of  timbers  to  transverse  strain. 
When  a  piece  of  timber  is  fixed  horizontally  at  its 
two  ends,  then,  either  by  its  own  proper  weight,  or  by 
the  addition  of  a  load,  it  bends,  and  its  fibres  become 
curved.  If  the  curvature  do  not  exceed  a  certain  limit, 
the  timber  may  recover  its  straightness  when  the  weight 
is  removed;  but  if  it  exceed  that  limit,  although  ihe 
curvature  diminishes  on  the  removal  of  load,  the  timber 
never  recovers  its  straightness,  its  elasticity  is  lessened, 
and  its  strength  is  partly  lost.  On  the  load  being  aug- 
mented by  successive  additions  of  weights,  the  curva- 
ture increases  until  rupture  is  produced.  Some  woods, 
however,  break  without  previously  exhibiting  any  sensi- 
ble curvature. 

It  may  be  supposed  that,  in  the  case  of  the  timber 
being  exactly  prismatic  in  form,  and  homogeneous  in 
structure,  the  rupture  of  its  fibres  would  take  place  in 
the  middle  of  its  length,  in  the  vertical  line,  where  the 
curves  of  the  fibres  attain  their  maxima. 

In  the  rupture  by  transverse  strain  of  elastic  bodies 
in  general,  and  consequently  in  wood,  all  the  fibres  are 
not  afifected  in  the  same  manner.  Suppose  a  piece  of 
timber,  composed  of  a  great  number  of  horizontal 
ligneous  layers,  subjected  to  such  a  load  as  will  bend  it, 
then  it  will  be  seen  that  the  layers  in  the  upper  part  are 
contracted,  and  those  in  the  lower  part  extended,  while 
between  these  there  is  a  layer  which  suflfers  neither  com- 
pression nor  tensiQn;  this  is  called  the  neutral  plane  or 


axis. 


If  the  position  of  the  neutral  axis  could  be  determined 
with  precision,  it  would  render  more  exact  the  means  of 
calculating  transverse  strains;  but  as  the  knowledge  of 
the  ratios  of  extensibility  and  compressibility  is  not  ex- 
act, the  position  of  the  neutral  axis  can  only  be  vaguely 
deduced  from  experiment.  Where  the  ratios  of  compres- 
sion and  extension  equal,  the  neutral  axis  would  be  in 
the  center  of  the  beam;  but  experiments  show  that  this 
equality  does  not  exist.  Barlow  found  that  in  a  rec- 
tangular fir  beam  the  neutral  axis  was  at  about  five- 
eighths  of  the  depth;  and  Duhamel  cut  beams  one-third, 
and  one-half,  and  two-thirds  through,  inserting  in  the  cuts 
slips  of  harder  wood,  and  found  the  weights  borne  by 
the  uncut  and  cut  beams  to  be  as  follows : 

Uncut  Beam  M  Cut  %  Cut  %  Cut 

45  tt)  51  It)  48  tb  42  lb 

Results  which  clearly  show,  that  less  than  half  the  fibres 
were  engaged  in  resisting  extension;  and  it  has  been 
long  known  that  a  beam  of  soft  wood,  supported  at  its 
extremities,  may  have  a  saw-cut  made  in  the  center, 
half-way  through  its  thickness,  and  a  hard  wood  piece 
inserted  in  the  cut,  without  its  strength  being  materially 
impaired. 


The  transverse  strength  of  beam  is — 
Directly  as  the  breadth. 
Directly  as  the  square  of  the  depth,  and 
Inversely  as  the  length; 
or  substituting  the  letter  b  for  the  breadth, 

d  for  the  depth,  and 
/    for  the  length, 
and  placing  the  ratios  together,  the  general  expression  of 
the  relation  of  strength  to  the  dimensions  of  a  beam  is 
obtained  as   follows: — 

b  X  d' 


I 
But  this  forms  no  rule  for  application,  since  beams  of 
different  materials  do  not  break  by  the  application  of  the 
same  load ;  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  find  by  experi- 
ment a  quantity  to  express  the  specific  strength  of  each 
material. 

Let  this  quantity  be  represented  by  S,  and  the  formula 
becomes — 

b  Xd'  XS 
=  breakmg  weight. 

By  this  formula  experiments  can  be  reduced  so  as 
to  give  the  value  of  S.     It  is  only  necessary  to  find  the 
breaking  weight  of  a  beam  whose  dimensions  are  known, 
and  then  by  transposition  of  the  equation — 
/  X  breaking  weight 

b  X  d'  ~~ 

S  thus  becomes  a  constant  for  all  beams  of  the  same 
material  as  the  experimental  beam. 

When  the  value  of  S  for  various  kinds  of  wood  is 
determined,  the  formula  may  be  used  for  computing  the 
strength  of  a  given  beam,  or  the  size  of  a  beam  to  carry 
a  given  load.  For  any  three  of  the  quantities,  /,  b,  d,  W, 
being  given,  we  can  find  the  fourth  thus : — 

I.  When  the  beam  is  fixed  at  one  end  and  loaded  at 
the  other,  and  when 

/W 

=  S. 

The  length,  breadth,  and  depth  being  given,  to  find  the 
weight—  Sb  d^ 

W= 

/ 

The  weight,  breadth,  and  depth  being  given,  to  find  the 
leng'th— 

_S  b  d- 

~~      W 
The  weight,  length,  and  depth  being  given,  to  find  the 
breadth — 

_  /  W 

The  weight,  length,  and  breadth  being  given,  to  find  the 
depth — 


1  /W 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


ni 


When  the  section  of  a  beam  is  square,  that  is,  when 


/  /  W 
h  =  d;  then  b  or  d  ^     yj 


The  table  la  cohimn  12  contains  the  results  of  ex- 
periments on  transverse  strength  of  various  kinds  of 
wood,    with    the    value    of    S,    calculated    according    to 

/W 
the  formula  S  = . 

In  any  beam  exposed  to  transverse  strain,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  there  must  be  some  certain  proportion  between 
the  breadth  and  depth  which  will  afiford  the  best  results. 
It  is  found  that  this  is  obtained  when  the  breadth  is  to 
the  depth  as  6  to  10.  Therefore,  when  it  is  required  to 
,  find. the  least  breadth  that  a  beam  for  a  given  .bearing 
should  have,  the  formula  is  as  follows: — 

—  0.6  =  6; 
^~d 
or,  expressed  in  words — 

Rule. — Divide  the  length  in  feet  by  the  square  root  of 
the  depth  in  inches,  and  the  quotient,  multiplied  by  the 
decimal  0.6,  will  give  the  least  breadth  the  beam  ought 
to  have. 

The  nearer  a  beam  approaches  to  the  section  given 
by  this  rule,  the  stronger  it  will  be ;  and  from  this  rule  is 
derived  the  next. 

To  find  the  strongest  form  of  a  beam  so  as  to  use 
only  a  given  quantity  of  timber. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  feet  by  the  decimal 
0.6,  and  divide  the  given  area  in  inches  by  the  product, 
and  the  square  of  the  quotient  will  be  the  depth  in  inches. 

Example. — Let  the  given  length  be  20  feet,  and  the 

60 

given  area  of  section  60  inches.     Then =  5.00, 

20  X  0.6 
the  square  of  which  is  25  inches,  the  depth  required,  and 
the  breadth  is  consequently  2.4  inches. 

The  stiffest  beam  is  that  in  which  the  breadth  is  to  the 
depth  as  .58  to  i. 

i8d.     Tenacity 

As  the  strength  of  cohesion  must  be  proportional  to 
the  number  of  fibres  of  the  wood,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
the  area. of  section,  it  follows  that  the  tenacity  of  any 
piece  of  timber,  or  the  weight  which  will  tear  it  asunder 
lengthways,  will  be  found  by  multiplying  the  number  of 
square  inches  in  its  section  by  the  tabular  number  cor- 
responding to  the  kind  of  timber.    (Column  4,  Table  2.) 

Example.— ~S\xppose  it  is  required  to  find  the  tenacity 
of  a  tie-beam  of  fir,  of  8  X  6  inches  scantling. 

8  X  6  =  48,  which,  multiplied  by  12,000,  the  tabular 
number  for  fir,  gives  576,000  fb. 

This  is  the  absolute  tenacity.  Practically  it  is  not 
considered  safe  to  use  more  than  one-fourth  of  this 
weight,  or  144,000  tb. 

By  the  rule  inverted,  the  section  of  the  timber  may  be 
found  when  the  weight  is  given,  as  follows: — 


j^iile. — Divide  the  given  weight  by  the  tabular  num- 
ber, and  the  quotient  multiplied  by  4  is  the  area  of  sec- 
tion required  for  the  safe  load. 

Example. — Required  the  area  of  section  of  a  piece  of 
fir  to  resist  safely  a  tensile  strain  of  144,000  tb. 
144000 
=  12  X  4  =  48,  the  section  required. 


12000 


i8e.     Summary  of  Rules 


I.     Resistance  to  Tension  or  Tenacity. 

To  find  the  tenacity  of  a  piece  of  timber. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  number  of  square  inches  in  its 
section  by  the  tabular  number  corresponding  to  the  kind 
of  timber. 

III.     Resistance  to  Transverse  Strain. 

1st.  When  the  beam  is  fixed  at  one  end  and  loaded  at 
the  other. 

To  find  the  breaking  iveight,  when  the  length,  breadth, 
and  depth  are  given. 

/?«/^.— Multiply  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches  by 
the  breadth  in  inches,  and  the  product  by  the  tabular 
value  of  S  (Table  2,  column  12,  page  18),  and  divide 
by  the  length  in  inches:  the  quotient  is  the  breaking 
weight. 

To  find  the  length,  zi'hen  the  breadth,  depth,  and  break- 
ing zveight  are  given. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  depth  by  the 
breadth  and  by  the  value  of  S,  and  divide  by  the  weight : 
the  quotient  is  the  length. 

To  find  the  breadth,  zvhen  the  depth,  length,  and  break- 
ing zveight  are  given. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  by  the  length  in  inches, 
and  divide  by  the  square  of  the  depth  in  inches  multi- 
plied by  the  value  of  S :  the  quotient  is  the  breadth. 

To  find  the  depth,  zvhen  the  breadth,  length,  and 
zveight  are  given. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  weight, 
divide  the  product  by  the  breadth  in  inches  multiplied  by 
S,  and  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  is  the  depth. 

To  find  the  side  of  a  square  beam,  zvhen  the  length 
and  zveight  are  given. 

Rule. — I^Iultiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  weight, 
divide  the  product  by  S,  and  the  cube  root  of  the  quo- 
tient is  the  side  of  the  square  section. 

To  find  the  scantling  of  a  piece  of  timber  zvhich, 
zvhen  laid  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  supported  at 
both  ends,  zvill  resist  a  given  transverse  strain,  zvith  a 
deflection  not  exceeding  ^/toth  of  an  inch  per  foot. 

I.  When  the  breadth  and  length  are  giz'en,  to  find  the 
depth. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet  by 
the  weight  to  be  sustained  in  tb.,  and  the  product  by 
the  tabular  number  a  (Table  2,  column  10,  page  18)  ; 
divide  the  product  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  the  cube 
root  of  the  quotient  will  be  the  depth  in  inches. 

Example. — Required  the  depth  of  a  pitch  pine-beam, 


IT  2  WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 

having  a  bearing  of  20  feet,  and  a  breadth  of  6  inches,  the  length  between  the  supports  in  inches,  and  the  quo- 
te sustain  a  weight  of  1000  lb.                          •  tient  will  be  the  greatest  weight  the  beam  will  bear  in  lb. 
The  square  of  the  length,  20  feet.  .     =      400  2d.     When  the  beam  is  supported  at  one  end  and 

Multiplied  by  the  weight   =          icxx)  loaded  in  the  middle. 

• The  length,  breadth,  and  depth,  all  in  inches,  being 

And  the  product 400,000  given,  to  find  the  zueight. 

By  the  decimal .016  Rule. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  depth  by  4  times 

the  breadth,  and  by  S,  and  divide  the  product  by  the 

Divide  the  product  by  the  breadth,  length  for  the  breaking  weight. 

6  inches   =  6400.000  The  zveight,  breadth,  and  depth  being  given,  to  find 

Gives    1066.666  the  length. 

The  cube  root  of  which  is  10.2  inches,  the  depth  re-  R^de. — Multiply  4  times  the  breadth  by  the  square 

quired.  of  the  depth,  and  by  S,  and  the  product  divided  by  the 

2.  When  the  depth  is  given.  weight  is  the  length. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet  by  ^'^o  weight,  length,  and  depth  being  given,  to  find 

the  weight  in  tb,  and  multiply  this  product  by  the  tabu-  '''^  breadth. 

lar  value  of  a:  divide  the  last  product  by  the  cube  of  the  i?i«/^.— Multiply   the   length  by  the  weight,   and  the 

depth  in  inches,  and   the  quotient  will  be  the  breadth  product   divided   by   4  times   the   square   of   the   depth 

required.  multiplied  by  S,  is  the  breadth. 

£.ra;«/'/f?.— Length  of  pitch-pine  beam  20  feet ;  depth.  The  weight,  length,  and  breadth  being  given,  to  find 

10.2  inches;  weight,  1000  lb.  '/^^  depth. 

20  X  20  X  1000  X  .016        6400  i?i(/f.— Multiply  the  length  by  the  weight,  and  divide 

Then   =    =  6,  the  breadth  the  product  by  4  times  the  breadth  multiplied  by  S. 

•    A  '°'^  ^  ^°^       ^°  ^                 '  IVhen  the  section  of  the  beam  is  square,  and  the  weight 

"          ',,           .  ,        ,     ,        ,  ,            ,      ,      ,    .      .  and  length  are  given,  to  find  the  side  of  the  square. 

3.  M^hen  neither  the  breadth  nor  the  depth  is  given,  ,                .  ,     .,,..,,.,■  u..        j  a-  -j 

,     "^  ,                    ,      ,           .      ,  ,       ,                 ,.       ,    r  Rule. — Multiply  the  length  by  the  weight,  and  divide 

but  they  are  to  be  determined  by  the  proportion  before  ,     ^  u         ^          c    ^u        u          ^     ^  ^u           ,.■     ^ 

-;            ,        ,  ,         ,      ,      '     ^  the  product  by  4  times  b :  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient 

given,  that  is,  breadth  to  depth  as  0.6  to  i.  •    ^1     ,        j^u        ..i      j     ^u 

„   ,        ^/ ,  ■  ,      ,          •  ,     •     ^  ,       ,         t   ,  is  the  breadth  or  the  depth. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  weight  in  lb  by  the  tabular  num-  ,      ,,,,        .,     ,          ■    j:     j    >.  u  ^u      a        jijj 

.*,  -^               °                 ;  3d.     When  the  beam  is  fixed  at  both  ends  and  loaded 

ber  a,  and  divide  the  product  by  0.6,  and  extract  the  •     ,,          jj, 

,  •  ,      ,              ,       ,     ,        ,    ■     r             ,  in  the  middle, 

square  root:  multiply  the  root  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^     ^^^^/^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^.         .^^^^  ^^  ^,^^ 

extract  the  square  root  of  this  product,  which  will  be  the  ^,          ... 

the  weight. 

depth   in  inches,  and  the  breadth  will  be  equal  to  the  Rule.-Un\U^\y  6  times  the  breadth  by  the  square 

depth  mult.p  led  by  0.6.  ^^  ^^^  ^^p^j^^  ^^^  ^     S^  ^^^  ^;^i^^  ^^^  p^^^^^^  ^^  ^j^^ 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  rectangular  beam,  fixed  at  .       .r    f      *t,         •  u*. 

one  end  and  loaded  at  the  other.  ^"  n'is^not  nelesLy  to  repeat  all  the  transpositions  of 

Rule. — Multiply  the  value  of  S  by  the  area  of  the  ,, 

,,,,,.,,                 ,,■•,,  the  equation, 

section,  and  by  the  depth  of  the  beam,  and  divide  the  ^^,^      ^,^^,^  ^j^^  ^^^^  j^  ^,.^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^,^  ^^^  ,^^^j^j 

product  by  the  length  in  inches.     The  quotient  will  be  the  ^^  ^^  intermediate  point. 

breaking  weight  in  ft.  i?M/^.— Multiply  3  times  the  length  by  the  breadth, 

E.rample.-A  beam  of  Riga  fir  projects  10  feet  be-  ^^^  ^^  ^^e  square  of\he  depth,  and  by  S;  and  divide  the 

yond  Its  point  of  support,  and  its  section  is  8  X  6  inches,  p^.^^^^^^  ^^  ^^j^^  ^,^^  rectangle  formed  by  the  segments 

what  IS  Its  breaking  weight  ?  .^^^  ^^.^^  ^^^  ^^-^^^  ^,j^j^^3  ^j,^  ^^^^ 

Area  8  X  6  r=r  48,  multiplied  by  the  depth  8  =  384.  p^^  example,   if  the  beam  is  20  feet  long  and  the 

Multiply  this  by  the  constant  1108,  and  divide  the  product  ^^jg^t  is  placed  at  5  feet  from  one  end,  then  the  seg- 

iioo  X  304  ments  are  respectively  5  feet  and  15  feet,  or,  in  inches, 

by  the  length, =  3545  tb.    The  fourth  part  5^  ^^^j  jg^.  ^^^  ^he  rectangle  is  60  X   180  =   10800; 

^^  and  twice  this  amount,  or  21600,  is  the  divisor. 

of  this  is  the  safe  weight  to  impose  in  practice,  there-  Suppose  the  beam  of  Riga  fir,   fixed  at  both  ends, 

°^^  and  its  section  8X6  inches  and  the  weight  placed  at  5 

3545  feet  from  one  end,  required  its  breaking  weight:  then, 

=  886  lb.  three  times  the  length  =  720,  multiplied  by  the  product 

4  of  the  breadth  into  the  square  of  the  depth,  and  by  the 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  rectangular  beam,  when  it  is  tabular  value  of  S  =  306339840;  which  divided  by  21600, 

supported  at  the  ends  and  loaded  at  the  middle.  as  above,  gives  14,182  lb  as  the  breaking  weight. 

Rule. — Multiply  S  by  4  times  the  depth,  and  by  the  5th.     When  the  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends,  but 

area  of  the  section  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  not  fixed,  and  when  the  load  is  in  the  middle. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


173 


To  find  the  zveight,  zahen  the  length,  breadth  and 
depth  are  given. 

Rule. — Multiply  4  times  the  breadth  by  the  square 
of  the  depth  and  by  S,  and  divide  the  product  by  the 
length :  the  product  is  the  breaking  weight. 

i8f.     Compound  Beams 

In  any  loaded  beam,  as  we  have  seen,  the  fibres  on 
the  upper  side  are  compressed,  while  those  on  the  lower 
side  are  extended;  and  within  the  elastic  limits  those 
forces  are  equal.  The  intensity  of  the  strain,  also,  varies 
directly  as  the  distance  of  any  fibre  from  the  neutral 
axis. 

If  the  parts  of  a  beam  near  the  neutral  axis,  which 
are  little  strained  and  oppose  but  little  resistance,  could 
be  removed ;  and  if  the  same  amount  of  material  could  be 
disposed  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  axis ;  the  strength 
and  stifTness  would  be  increased  in  exact  proportion  to 
the  distance  at  which  it  could  be  made  to  act.  Hence, 
in  designing  a  truss,  the  material,  to  resist  the  horizontal 
strain,  must  be  placed  as  far  from  the  neutral  axis  as 
the  nature  of  the  structure  will  allow. 


Suppose  to  the  single  beam  a  b  (Fig.  5a)  we  add 
another  c  d,  and  unite  them  by  vertical  connections,  then 
it  might  be  supposed  that  we  were  doing  as  above  sug- 
gested ;  that  is,  making  a  compound  beam  by  disposing 
the  material  advantageously  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the  neutral  axis.  But  it  is  not  so.  There  are  only 
two  beams  resisting  with  their  individual  strength  and 
stiffness  the  load,  which  is  increased  by  the  weight  of 
the  vertical  connections,  and  they  would  sink  under  the 
pressure  into  the  curve  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  to  use  some  means  whereby  the 
two  beams  will  act  as  one,  and  their  flexure  under  pres- 
sure be  prevented.  This  is  found  in  the  use  of  braces, 
as  in  Fig.  6a ;  and  we  shall  proceed  to  consider  what 
effect  a  load  would  produce  on  a  truss  so  formed. 

The  load  being  uniformly  distributed,  the  depression 
in  the  case  of  flexure  will  be  greatest  in  the  middle,  and 
the  diagonals  of  the  rectangles  a  b,  c  d,  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  shorten.  But,  as  the  braces  are  incapable  of 
yielding  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  the  shortening 
cannot  take  place,  neither  can  the  flexure.  A  truss  of 
this  description,  therefore,  when  properly  proportioned, 
is  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  a  uniform  load. 


il^: _- 

F/G  S'^ 


174 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


If  the  load  is  not  uniformly  distributed,  the  pressures 
will  be  found  thus : — Let  the  weight  be  applied  at  some 
point  c  (Fig.  7a),  and  represented  by  c  p.  Now  resolve 
this  into  its  components  in  the  direction  c  a,  c  b,  and  con- 
struct the  parallelogram  p  m,  c  0,  then  c  m  will  represent 
the  strain  on  c  b  and  c  0  the  strain  in  the  direction  c  a. 
B)'  transferring  the  force  c  m  to  the  point  b,  and  resolv- 
ing it  into  vertical  and  horizontal  components,  the  verti- 
cal pressure  on  b  will  be  found  equal  to  c  n  and  that  on 
A  eqtial  to  n  p.  That  is,  the  pressures  on  a  and  b  are 
directly  proportional  to  their  distance  from  the  place  of 
the  application  of  the  load. 

In  the  same  manner,  if  the  load  were  at  R,  it  would 
be  discharged  by  direct  lines  to  a  and  b. 

The  effect  of  the  oblique  force  c  a  acting  on  r  is  to 
force  it  upwards,  and  the  direction  and  magnitude  of  the 
strain  would  be  the  diagonal  of  a  parallelogram  con- 
structed on  a  c,  c  R. 

The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  in  a  truss  a  weight  at 
one  side  produces  a  tendency  to  rise  at  the  other  side, 
and,  therefore,  while  the  diagonals  of  the  loaded  side  are 
compressed  those  of  the  unloaded  side  are  extended. 

Hence„  while  the  simple  truss  shown  in  the  last  two 
figures  is  perfectly  sufficient  for  a  structure  uniformly 
loaded,  because  the  weight  on  one  side  is  balanced  by  the 
weight  on  the  other,  it  is  not  sufficient  for  one  subjected 
to  a  variable  load. 

For  a  variable  load,  it  is  therefore  necessary  either 
that  the  braces  should  be  made  to  resist  extension  by 
having  iron  ties  added  to  them,  or  that  other  braces  to 
resist  compression  in  the  opposite  direction  should  be 
introduced ;  and  thus  we  obtain  a  truss  composed  of  four 
elements,  namely,  chords  a  b  and  c  d  (Fig.  8a),  vertical 


ties  e  f,  g  h,  k  m,  braces  e  c,  g  f,  g  m,  k  D,  and  counter- 
braces  A  f,  e  h,  k  h,  B  m,  or,  in  place  of  the  latter,  tie- 
rods  added  to  the  braces. 

It  has  been  shown  that  in  any  of  the  parallelograms 
of  such  a  truss  as  has  been  described,  the  action  of  a  load 
is  to  compress  the  braces  a  d,  a  b,  and  to  extend  the 
counter-braces  a  b,  a  c.  Suppose  (Fig.  9a)  that  the 
counter-braces  have  been  extended  to  the  length  a  tn, 
and  the  braces  compressed  to  an  equal  extent ;  then  if  a 
wedge   be   closely    fitted   into    the   interval   a   m,   it   will 


/^/&    ^ 


neither  have  any  effect  on  the  framing,  nor  will  itself  be 
afifected  in  any  way  so  long  as  the  weight  which  has  pro- 
duced the  flexure  continues.  But  on  the  removal  of  the 
weight,  the  wedge  becomes  compressed  by  the  effort  of  the 
truss  to  return  to  its  normal  condition.  This  effort  is  re- 
sisted by  the  wedge,  and  there  is,  consequently,  a  strain 
on  the  counter-brace  equal  to  that  which  was  produced 
by  the  action  of  the  weight.  The  effect  of  the  addition 
of  a  similar  weight,  therefore,  would  be  to  relieve  the 
strain  on  the  counter-brace,  without  adding  anything  to 
the  strain  on  the  brace  a  d. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


175 


Here  is  listed  in  alphabetical  order  the  names  of  principal  parts -of  a  wooden  ship, 
defined  under  proper  headings  or  described  and  illustrated  in  one  of  the  chapters. 

Parts  of  a  Wooden  Hull  Including  the  Wooden  Portions  of 


Air-course 

Amidship 

Apron 

Beam 

after  — 

breast  — ;  collar —  (of 

o  poop,  forecastle,  etc.) 

—  carling 
deck  — 

awning  deck  — 
between  deck  — 
forecastle  deck  ■ — 
lower  deck  — 
main  deck  — 
middle  deck   — 
poop  deck  — 
raised-quarter  deck  — 
spardeck  — 

upper  deck  — 

—  end 
foremost  — 

half  —   {in  way  of  hatch- 
ways) 

hatchway  — 
hold  — 

intermediate  — 
mast  — 
midship  — 

moulding  of  —  s   {depth) 
orlop  — 
paddle  — 

rounding  or  chamber  of  a — 
scantling  of —  s 
siding  of  — s  {breadth) 

—  scarph 
spacing  of  —  s 

spring  — ,  sponson — {of 

paddle-steamer) 

spur  —  {of  paddlewalks) 

tier  of  —  s 

transom  — ■ 

Bearding-line 

Bilge 

—  keelson 

—  logs 

• — planks 

■ —  strakes 

thick  strakes  of  — 

turn  of — 

lower  turn  of- — 

upper  turn  of  — 

Binding-strake 

Bitt 

cross  piece  of  — 
gallow  — 

—  head 
lining  of  — 
riding  — 


Bitt 

standard  to  — 

step  of  — 

top  sail  sheet  — 

windlass  —  {see  windlass) 

Body  {of  a  ship) 

Chock,  bow  — 

bi^tt —  {of  timbers) 

corner  —    {over   the  stem 

seam    in    way     of    hawse 

bolster) 

cross  — 

dowsing  —    {breasthook 

above  a  deck) 

floor  head  — - 

Cable-stage ;  Cable-tier 

Careening 

Carling  {Beam-carling) 
hatchway  — 
mast  —  {fore  and  aft 
partners  of  mast) 

Carvel-built 

Carvel-work 

Casing 

Cat-head 

supporter  of  — 

Cat-tail 

Caulking 

Ceiling 

between  deck  — 
close — 
tlat  — ,  floor  — 
hold  — 

—  plank 

thick  stuff  of  — 

Chain-locker 

Chain-plate 
backstay  — 

—  bolt 
fore  — 
main  — 
mizzen  — 
preventer  — 
preventer  bolt 

Channel 
fore  — 

—  knee 
lower  — 
main  — 
mizzen  — 

—  ribband 
upper  — 

Cheek 

Chess-tree 
Chock 


the  greater  number  of  parts  being  either 

A  Composite  Hull 

Clamp 

deck  beam  — 
awning  deck  beam  — 
forecastle  deck  beam  — 
lower  deck  beam  — 
middle  deck  beam  — ;  main 

deck  beam  — • 
poop  — 

spardeck  beam  — 
upper  deck  beam  — 
hold  beam  — 

Cleat 

sheet  — ;  kevel  - — 

shroud  — 

snatch  — 

step  of  a  — 

stop  ■ — 

thumb  — 
Clincher-built 
Clinched-work 
Coach  {quarter-deck  cabin) 
Coak  or  dowel 
Coal-hold 
Coat 
Combing;   Coaming 

hatchway  — 

house  — 
Companion 

—  way 
Compartment 
Copper 

—  fastened 
Counter 

lower  — 

upper  — 
Covering-board 
Crane 
Crew-space 
Cross  piece  {floor) 
Crutch   {hook  in  after  peak) 
Crutch 
Curve 
Cutwater 
Dead-eye 
Dead-flat 
Dead-light 
Dead-rising 
Dead-wood 
Dead-work 

Deck 

awning  — 
entire  awning  — 
partial  awning  — 
between — {'tweendeck) 

—  dowel 
— -  ends 

first,  second  and  third  — 


I  yd 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Deck 

Fastening 

Futtock,  —  heel 

flat  of  — 

metal  — 

flush  — 

single  —  {in  planks) 

Gallery 

fore  — 

through  — 

Galley 

forecastle  — 

—  hook 

Faying  surface   {of  timbers, 

Gallows;  Gallows-bitts 

—  house 

planking,  etc.) 

—  light 

lower  or  orlop  ^ 

Felt  {under  metal  sheathing) 

Gangway 

Entering  port 

middle  — ,  main  — 

Figure-head 

Gangways  {under  deck) 

—  plank 

fiddle  — 

Garboard 

quarter  — 

Filling;  Filling  piece 

outer  — 

raised  quarter  —  or  half 

—  plank 

poop  — 

Floor 

—  seam 

—  seam 

aftermost  — 

—  strake 

shade  — 

cant  —  Double  futtock 

sheer  of  — 

double  — 

Girder 

shelter  ■ — 

flat  — 

Girth  {of  a  ship) 

.  spar  — 
stage  or  preventer  — 

foremost  — 
half  — 

Gripe  {of  stem  and  keel) 

tonnage  — 

—  head 

Groove 

upper  — 

—  head  chock 

Gunwale 

weather  — 

long  armed  — 

•    well  — 

midship  or  main  — 

Gutter 

moulding  of  —  s  {depth) 

—  ledge  {of  hatchway) 

Depth 

—  of  hold 

rising  of  —  s 
seating  of  a- — 
sliort  armed  — 
siding  of  —  s   {breadth, 
thickness) 

Hatch  {cover  of  a  hatchway) 

•  moulded — {measured  from 
top  of  keel  to  top  of  mid- 
ship beam) 

—  bars 

—  battens ;  Hatchway 
battens 

—  batten-cleat 

Diagonal 

top  of  —  s 

booby —  ;  Booby  hatchway 

—  iron  plates  or  riders  {on 

Forecastle 

■ —  carling 

frames') 

—  beam 

—  house 

Diminishing  stuff;  Diminishing 

—  coveringboard 

Hatchway  {also  called  hatch) 

planks 

—  deck 

after  or  quarter  — 

—  rail 

cargo  — 

Door 

—  skylight 

—  carlings 

Doubling 

monkey —  {small  height) 
sunk  — 

—  combing 
lower  deck  — 

diagonal  — 

topgallant  — 

main  deck  — 

Dove-tail 

upper  deck  — 

—  plate 

Frame 

fore' — 

after  balance  — 

fore  and  after  in  a 

Dowel ;  Coak 

fore  balance  — 

—  grating 

deck  — 

diagonal  —  ;  trussing  — 

—  headledge 

floor  — 

flight  of  —  s 

hood  of  — 

Draught 

foremost  — 

main  — 

main  or  midship  — 

thwartship  piece,  half  beam 

Draught-mark 

moulding  of  —  s 

in  a  — 

Eking 

—  riders,  diagonals  on  —  s 

wing  boards  in  —  {for 

siding  of  —  s 

grain  cargoes) 

Entrance  {of  a  vessel) 
Erection   {on  deck) 

spacing  of  —  s 
spacing  between  —  s 

Hawse;  Hawse-hole 
—  bag 

Escutcheon    {that   part   of  the 

square  — 
stern  — 

—  bolster 

—  plug 

stern,  where    the    name  is 

written) 

Freeboard 

Hawse-pipe 

knee  — 

Futtock 

—  flange 

Fair  leader 

first  —  ;  lower  — 

Hawse-timber 

Fashion-piece 

toptimber  of  a  — 

second  — 
third  — 
fourth  — 

Head  {of  a  vessel) 
beak  of  the  — 

Fastening 

fifth  — 

bluff  — 

copper  — 

sixth  — 

Knee  of  the  head  (") 

double  —  {in  planks) 

double  — 

—  boards 

iron  — 

—  head 

bob-stay  piece  of  the  — 

WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


177 


Head    (of  a  vessel) 

Keelson 

Manger 

cheeks  of  the  — 

bilge  — 

—  board 

cheek-fillings  of  the  — 

main  — 

lower  cheeks  of  the  — 

middle  line  — ;  center  — 

Mast-carling     (fore     and     aft 
(partners  of  mast) 

washboards  under  the  low- 

rider — 

er  cheeks  of  the  — 

scarph  of  — 

—  hole     ■ 

upper  cheeks  of  the  — 

sister- —  ;  side  — 

Mess-room 

filling  chocks  of  the  — 

Kevel ;  Kevel-head 

Middle-line;  Center-line 

—  grating 

independent  piece  of  the  — 

Knee 

Midship-section 

lace  piece  or  gammoning  of 
the  — 

beam  arm  of  a  — 
dead  wood  — 

Mooring-pipe 

Head,  standard  knee  of  the  — 

diagonal  — 
hanging—;  vertical  — 

Moulding 

—  rail 

heel —  (of  sternpost  and 

Moulding  (of  a  piece  of 

berthing  rail  of  — 

keel) 

timber) 

main  rail  of  — 

hold  beam  - — 

breech  — 

small  or  middle  rail  of  — 

iron  ■ — 

cable  — 

stem  furr  of  the  — 
—  timbers 

lodging  — 

lower  deck  beam  — 

Name-board 

Head-ledge  (of  a  hatchway) 

middle  deck  beam  — 

Naval-hood    (hawse   pipe    bol- 
ster) 

Heel 

upper  deck  beam  — 

Helm 

Knee,  ^  rider 

Pad 

standard  — 

Paddle  beam 

Helm-port     (the    hole    in    the 
counter,    through   which    the 

staple  — 
throat  of  a  - — - 

Paddle  box 

framing  of  — 

head  of  the  rudder  passes.) 

transom  — 

Hogging;  Sagging 

wooden  — 

Paddle  walks  (extension  of  the 

Hold 

Knight 

paddle  boxes) 

after  — 

of  the  fore-mast 

Panel-work 

fore  — 

of  the  main-mast 

Panting  (of  a  ship) 

lower  — 

of  the  mizzen-mast 

main  — 

Knighthead 

Pantry  (steward's  room) 

Hood 

(of  the  crew-space) 

Launching  (of  a  ship) 

Partner 

bowsprit  — 

after  —  s   (of  planking) 

Lazarette 

capstan  — 

fore  — s  (of  planking) 

Leak 

mast  — 

—  ends ;  Wood-ends 
House;  Deck-house 

Lee-board    (used  by  small  Hat 
bottomed  vessels) 

fore  and  aft  mast  — 
(mast-carling) 

Ice-doubling;  Ice-lining 

Lee-flange  (iron  horse) 

Peak 

after  - — ■ 

Intercostal 

Length   (of  a  ship) 

fore  — • 

Iron 

extreme  —  (from  fore-part 

bar  — 

of    stem    to    afterpart    of 

Pin-rack 

galvanized  — 

sternpost) 

Plank 

plain  • — 

Lengthening  (of  a  ship) 

boundary  —  ;  margin —  (of 

—  rod;  Iron-horse 

Limbers;  Limber-passage  (*) 

a  deck) 

—  work 

Limber-boards 

shifting  of  —  s 

Keel 

Planking 

bilge  — 

Limber-hole 

bilge—  (outside) 

camber  of — ;  hogging  of — 

Limber-strakes 

bilge —  (inside) 

center  line — ;  middle  line — 

Lining 

bottom  — 

false—  ;  safety  — 

Listing 

bow  — 

length  or  piece  of  — 

Load-line 

bulwark  — 

main  — 

deep  — 

buttock  — 

moulding  of- — 

Lobby 

deck  — 

lower —  ;  upper  false  — 

diagonal  - — 

—  rabbet 

Locker 

fastening  of  — 

—  scarph 

Locker-seat 

inside^ 

stopwater  (in  keel  scarph) 

(*)  A  passage  over  the  floors 

outside  — 

—  seam   (garboard-seam) 

or  holes  in  same  to  allow  water 

stern  — 

side  — 

to  reach  the  pumps ;  The  space 

topside  — 

siding  of — 

between  the  floors  extending  a 

Planksheer 

skeg  of  — 

short  distance  on  each  side  of 

Platform 

sliding  — 

the   middle-line,    is   also   called 

upper  or  main  — 

"Limbers". 

Pointer 

178 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Poop 

—  beam 

—  bulkhead 

—  frame 
full  — 

half — (or  raised  quarter 
deck) 

Port 

air  — 
ballast  — 

—  bar 
bow  — 

cargo  — ;    gangway    —  (in 

bulwark) 

entering  — 

flap  of  — 

freeing    — ;    water  — ■     (in 

bulwark) 

—  hinges 

—  lid 

Port,  quarter  — 
raft  — 

—  ring 
sash  — 
side  — 

—  sill;  —  cill 

Quarter  (after  end  of  a  ship) 

—  deck 
raised  —  deck 

—  pieces 
Rabbet 

back  — 

keel  — 

• — line 

stem  — 

sternpost  — 
Rail 

boundary  — 

counter  —  s 

cove  — 

fife —  (around  raised  quar- 
ter dedk). 

fife—  (around  masts) 

forecastle  — 

hand' — 

main  — ;  roughtree  — 

poop  — 

sheer  — 

taflf- 

topgallant  — ;  monkey  — 
Ranger  (side  pin-rack) 
Ribs  (frames) 
Rider  (hold  rider) 

floor  — 

futtock  — ;  top  — 
Roof 

Rubbing-strake 
Rudder 

back  pieces  of  — 

balanced  • — 

—  boards  (of  inland 
vessels) 

—  brace ;  —  gudgeon 

—  bushes  (bushes  in  rudder 
braces  or  around  pintles)  • 


Rudder 

—  coat 
gulleting  of  a  — 

—  head 

coning  of  the  —  head 

—  heel 

rounded  heel  df  — 

—  horn  (an  iron  bar  on 
back  of  rudder,  to  which 
the  pendants  are  shackled) 

—  irons 

jury  — ;  temporary  —  main 
piece  of  • — 

—  mould 

—  pendant 

—  pintle 

—  pintle  score 
rake  of  a  — 

sole  piece  of  a- — 

Rudder  tell-tale  of  a  — 

—  tiller  or  tillar 

—  trunk 

—  woodlock  (to  prevent 
the  rudder  being  unhung) 

Run  (of  a  vessel) 
clean  — 

full  — 

Sail-room 

Samson-post  (of  heavy  piece  of 
timber  used  for  different  pur- 
poses) 

Scantling 

Scarph ;  Scarf 
flat  — 
hooked  — 
horizontal  — 
lip  of  a  — 
dovetail  — 
vertical — ;  side  — 

Score 

Scupper ;  Scupper  hole  — 
• —  leather 

—  pipe 

—  plug 

—  port ;  Freeing  port  (in 
bulwark) 

Scuttle    (small   opening  in   the 
ship's  side  or  deck) 
cable-tier  — 
deck  — 

Seam 

butt  — 
longitudinal  — 

Sheathing 
bottom  — 
copper  — 
metal  — 
wood  — 
wood —  (of  bottom)- 

Sheathing  zinc  — 
Sheer  (of  a  ship) 
Sheerstrake 


Shelf 

deck  beam  — 

awning  deck — ,  awning 
deck  beam  — 

forecastle  deck  — ;   fore- 
castle deck  beam  — 

lower  deck  — ;  lowerdeck 
beam  — 

main    or    middle    deck — ; 
main  deck  beam  — 

poop  — ;  poop  beam  — 

spar-deck  — ;  spar-deck 
beam  — 

upper  deck  — ;  upper  deck 
beam  — 

hold  beam  — 

Shift  of  planking. 

after- — of   planking 
fore  —  of  planking 

Shifting-boards     (in    hold    for 

grain-cargoes) 
Ship-building 
Shore 

Side  (of  a  ship) 
lee  — 
port  — 
starboard  — 

top  —  ■        . 

weather  — 

Side-light;  Side  scuttle 

Sill;   Cill 

Skeleton  (of  a  ship) 

Skids;  Skid-beams 

Skin 

Skylight 

cabin  — 

dead  lights  of  a  — 

forecastle  — 

—  guards 
Sounding-pipe  (of  pump) 
Spirketting 

deck  beam  —  ;  deck  — 

awning  deftk  — 

forecastle  deck  ■ — 

lower  deck  — 

main-  or  middle  deck  — 

poop  — 

spar-deck  — 

upper  deck  — 

hold  beam  — 
Spur 

Spur-beam 
Stanchion 

bulwark  — 

deck  — ;  deck  beam  — 

main  deck  — 

upper  deck —     ' 

deck  —  cleats 

fixed  — 

hold  —  ;  hold 

beam  — 

loose  — 

quarter  — 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


179 


Stanchion 

roughtree  — 

step  of  — 

topgallant  bulwark —       , 
State-room 
Stealer;  Drop-strake 
Steerage 
Steering-apparatus 

patent  — 
Steering-wheel 

Stem     • 

moulding  of —  (breadth) 
rake  of  — ;  inclination  of  — 
boxing  of  —  and  keel 
siding  of —  (thickness) 
up  and  down  —  (stem 
forming  no  cutwater) 

Stemson 

Step 

—  butted  (planking) 
Stern    (extreme  after  part   of 

a  ship) 

elliptical  — 

—  frame 
moulding  of  — 
pink  — 

—  pipe 

—  port 

round — ;  circular  — 
square  — 

—  timber 

—  window 
Sternpost;  Rudder  post;  or 

Main  post 

heel  of  — 

heel  knee  of  — 

inner  —  (inner  post) 

rake  of  — 

tenon  of  — 
Stemson 
Stirrup  (strap  on  foot  of  stem 

and  fore-end  of  keel) 
Stop 
Store-room 

boatswain's  — 
Stowage 
Strake;  Streak  (of  planking) 

Strake,  adjoining  — 
bilge  — 


Strake 

binding  — 
black  — 
bottom  — 
intermediate  — 
side  — 
topside  — 

Stuff,  diminishing  — 
short —    . 
thick  — 

Thick-strakes  (of  ceiling) 
(of  outside  planking) 

Tiller;  Tillar  (rudder) 
quadrant  — 

—  rope 

Timber 

alternate  — 
butt  of  —  s 
cant  — 
counter  — 
side   counter  — 

—  dowel 
filling — ■ 
floor  — 
hawse  — 

—  head 
heel  of  a  — 

horn- — (middle   timber   of 
stern) 
knuckle  — 

moulding  of  —  s    (thick- 
ness) 

post  —  s    (stern  timbers  in 
round  or  elliptical  stern) 
Timber,  quarter  —  s 
scantling  of  —  s 
set  of  —  s  (a  frame) 
shift  of  —  s 
siding  of  —  s  (breadth) 
and  space 
space  between  —  s 
square  —  s 
top  — 

Tonnage 

—  under  deck 
gross  — 
register  — ;  net  — 

Tonnage-deck 

Topgallant- forecastle    (Fore- 
castle) 


Topside  (of  a  vessel) 

Topside-planking 

Trail-board   (between  the 
cheeks  of  the  head) 

Transom 
deck  — 
filling  —  s  , 

—  knee 

wing  —  (in     square     stern 
ships) 

Treenail 

—  wedge 

Treenailing 

Trunk 

Trussing,  internal  — 

Tuck;  Buttock 

Waist  (the  deck  between  fore- 
castle and  poop) 

Wales 

channel  — 

Ward-room 

Water-closet 

Water-course  (limbers) 

Water-line 
light  — 

Water-way 
inner  — 
lower  deck  — 
main  deck  — 
outer  -^ 
upper  deck  — 

Well;  Pump-well 
Wheel  (steering-wheel) 
barrel  of  — 

—  chain 

—  house 

—  rope 

—  spindle 

—  spokes 

—  stanchion 

Whelp  (of  a  capstan  or  wind- 
lass) 
Wing  (of  the  hold) 
Wood-flat 
Wood-lining 
Work,  upper  — ;  Dead  work 


Chapter  XIX 
256-Foot  Commercial  Schooner 

The  principal  dimensions  are: 

Length  o.  a 292  feet 

Length  at  water-line,  loaded  ....  256 

Length,  keel   244 

Breadth   48 

Depth   23.75-' 

Tonnage  gross,  2,114;  net,  1,870 


s^ 

M 

M 

M 

•^ -j 

"^^ 

P°^ 

^3 

^ 

^^ 

fe^^ 

/    j    1/ 

•/ 

/ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

-' 

^ 

~0^  ^^^^v^ 

§^<:- 

/    /   / 

\ 

/ . 

^'v 

^^  c^^ 

:SS:  ->n\  ■--, 

H-/t 

M 

^ 

^^^ 

— ■■ — ^ 

_ 

— ' 

■ 

^^^N 

Fig.  200.     Lines  and  Sail  Plan  of  Commercial  Schooner.     Designed  by  B.  B.  Crownlnshield 


WOODEN      S  H I P  -  B  U I L  D I N  G  ■.  s:lU:r}i:}  ix;  I  z8i 


5,000-Ton  Motorship 


Fig.   201a.     Construction  Section  of  Wooden  Motorship 


Fig.  201b.     Construction  Plan  For   Hold   and  Lower  Deck 


The  principal, dimensions  of  this  vessel  are: 
Length  o.  a. 278  feet  11  inches 


Length,  A.B.S.  rule  ...  260 

Length,    l.w.l    267 

Breadth,   extreme    ....  45 

Breadth,  moulded   ....  44 

Depth,  moulded 25 

Depth  of  hold 21 


o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 


Deadrise    36  feet     o  inches 

Draught,  loaded 22      "      o      " 

Draught  light,  forward     10      "      o      " 

Draught,  light,  aft 16      "      6       " 

Displacement    ....        5,087  long  tons 

Total  D.W 3.100  long  tons 

Net  D.W 2,550  long  tons 

Lumber  capacity  . .  1,500,000  board  feet 


g 


'Mi 


t'l-.' 


or™ 


(^^ 


c^ 


I    o 


a 

o 

« 
n 

a 


lSr*t--.;i., -^^Nl 


■>''''V>^ii^-M^.; 


Fig.  20  le.     Typical  Sections 


Fig.  201f.     Arrangement  of  Machinery  and  Piping  of  Engine  Boom 


Tig.  202.    Fioftle,  Construction  and  Deck  Fluu  of  Steam  Trawler,  Bnllt  From  Designs  by  Cox  &  Stevens  For  the  East  Coast  Fisheries  Company 


The  Trawl  Ready  to  Lower  Over  the  Side  of  the  Vessel 


Forward  Deck  House 


Kingfisher  on  the  Ways  of  the  Portland  Shipbuilding   Company  Beady  For  Lauiicliiuii 


Steam   Trawler  Kingfisher  on  Her  Trial   Trip   at   Portland,   Mo. 
Fig.  202a 


;    €    »  »     <       €  •     « 


Sail   Plan   of    80-Foot   Auxiliary   Fishing   Schooner   Built   From    Schock  Designs 


Construction  Flan  of  80-Foot  Auzlliary  Schooner  Iskum 
Fig.  203 


Half  Deck  Flan  and  Longitudinal  Lines  of  b  Whaler 


Typical    N eyv Bcbforb   Whalcr. 


Tig.  204 


i88 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


270-Foot  Cargo  Carrier 

A  270-fo6t  full-powered  cargo  vessel,   from  designs  of  direct-connected  generating  outlits  for  lighting,  heating 

by  Edson  B.  Schock.     This  vessel  has  two  full  decks  and  and  operating  electric  winches,  of  which  there  are  four, 

about  3,200  tons  deadweight  carrying  capacity.  and  an  electric  windlass. 

It  is  built  to  the  highest  class,  and  is  driven  by  twin  The  general  dimensions  are : 

Mclntosh-Seymour  Diesel  engines  of  500  h.p.  each.     The  Length    270  feet 

estimated  speed  is  9.5  knots.     Fuel  capacity  1,000  barrels,  Breadth   46     " 

carried  in  four  tanks.     The  auxiliary  machinery  consists  Depth  moulded : .     26     " 


Fig.  205.     Plans  of  a  270-Foot  Cargo  Carrier,  Built  From  Designs  by  Edson  B.  Schock;  Equipped   With   Mclntosh-Seymour  Diesel  Engines 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


:;:■{■}  i^ji-J/-^ 


Fig.  206.     Profile,   Deck,   Construction  and  Sail  Plans  of  220-Foot  Auxiliary  Scbooner  Built  From  Designs  by  Edson  B.  Schock 

Length  o.  a 220  feet 

Breadth    4^     " 

Depth  moulded 21 

Carrying  capacity  . . . .  .^ 1,800  tons 


•c     c    c  5c    J     c    <     •         t  . 


Fig.  207.     Sail,   Construction  and  Deck   Plans  of  223-Foot  Auxiliary  Schooner,  Bnilt  From  Besigns  by  Cox  &   Stevens 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


:',;/$?;/, 


Pig.  209.     235-Foot  AuxlUary  Commercial  Schooner,  Designed  by  J.  Murray  Watts 


235-Foot  Auxiliary  Schooner 

The  accompanying  plans  show  a  four-masted  auxil- 
iary schooner,  designed  by  J.  Murray  Watts.  This  vessel 
is  235  feet  over  all,  217  feet  registered  length,  40  feet 
breadth  and  18  feet  depth. 

Plans  and  specifications  conform  with  the  American 
Bureau  of  Shipping. 

Power,  oil  engines  of  320  h.p. 

Cargo  capacity,  2,cxx>  tons. 


224-Foot  Auxiliary  Schooner 

A  four-masted  auxiliary  schooner,  designed  by  Edson 
B.  Schock,  of  Seattle,  Wash.  The  construction  is  ac- 
cording to  the  requirements  of  the  American  Bureau  of 
Shipping.  Teh  capacity  of  this  vessel  as  usually  ex- 
pressed on  the  West  Coast  is  1,400,000  feet  of  lumber. 

Length  o.  a 224  feet  o  inches 

Length  1.  w.  1 200    "    o     " 

Breadth    43    "    6      " 

Depth   20    "    o      " 


Fig.  208.     221-Foot  Auxiliary   Commercial  Schooner,  Designed  by  Edson  B.  Schock 


M 

S 

e 


•s 

o 

3 

a 

o 
o 

« 

1 


3 

F4 


a 


ft 


IQ4 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


200-Foot  Schooner 


Fig.  212.    Profile,    Sail   and   Deck   Plans   of   200-Foot   Four-Masted    Schooner   Building   For    J.    W.    Somerville,    Gulfport,   Miss.,    From   Designs 

by  Cox  &  Stevens 


This  vessel    is   a   four-masted   schooner  built    under  line,  extreme  breadth  36  feet  8  inches,  depth  of  hold  15 

the  classification  of  the  American  Bureau  of  Shipping  feet,  depth  of  side  17  feet  11  inches,  draught  loaded  16 

and  rated  A-i  15  years.     She  is  built  of  long-leaf  yellow  feet  6  inches.     She  will  displace   1,942  tons  and  carry 

pine  and  her  spars  are  of  Oregon  pine.     Her  general  1,240  tons  deadweight.     The  area  of  the  lower  sails  is 

dimensions  are:  200  feet  long  over  all,   177  feet  water-  10,794  square  feet. 


znxt 

Fig.  212a.    Engine  Installation  For  Working  Windlass  and  Capstan 


Rfc3TCrH»G5  rOP.   KEELSOtta     ETC 

i>j.cv3giv  y^^T"  """^^ 


««,.vv^.*««^--^ 

ew  ft  B  MB. 


1  wiTtnggrPitt  agg: 

.2!fi£KI 

-UbL 

Fig.  2121).     Midship  Consttuction  Plan  of  Four-Masted  Schoo.er  Building  For  J.  W.  Somervllle,  Designed  by  Cox  Sc  Stevens 


Fig.  213a.     Sail   Plan    of    152-Foot   Auxiliary   Schooner,    Now   Building  From  Designs  by  John  G.  Alden 


Deck  and  Arrangement  Plan  of  152-Foot  Cargo  Carrier,  Building  by  Frank  C.  Adams,  East  Boothbay,  Me. 


Sections  of  Auxiliary  Schooner,   Building  From  Alden  Designs 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


:■■;;>  ir«7-; 


152-Foot  Auxiliary  Schooner 

An  auxiliary  schooner,  152  feet  long  on  deck,  is  being  storeroom,   spare   room,   and   rooms   for   the   mate  and 

built  by  Frank  C.  Adams,  of  East  Boothbay,  Me.,  from  steward. 

designs  by  John   G.  Alden.     The  vessel   is  to  be  used  With  the  present  shortage  of  timber  this  vessd,  being 

as  a  sailing  craft  because  of  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  smaller  than  is  usual  for  cargo  carriers,  can  be  built  in 

engines,  but  as  soon  as  the  engine  builders  can  furnish  comparatively   short   time   and   made  to   pay   enormous 

the  power  it  will  be  installed.    This  is  only  one  instance  profits.     It  will  carry  about  700  tons  dead  weight  and  be 

of  the  trouble  shipbuilders  are  experiencing  with  engines  operated  offshore  with  a  crew  of  seven  men,  and  on  the 
and  it  is  because  of  the  great  demand  for  engines  which  _  coast,  especially  in  Suminer,  with  five  men. 

the  manufacturers  are  at  present  unable  to  meet.     With  There  are  many  yards  which  are  capable  of  building 

the  great  building  program  of  the  shipping  interests  in  vessels  of  the  size  of  this  schooner  but  which  could  not 

this  country  only  just  put  in  operation  there  is  coming  an  'i^ndle   larger  vessels.     Such  craft  at  present  rates  of 

era  of  prosperity  for  all  engine  men.  ^''^'ght  would  very  soon  pay  for  themselves  and  would 

,„,  .              ,  .                 ,          .       .                                 ,  ,  always  be  useful  for  coasting  or  for  short  voyages, 

i  his  vessel  is  most  attractive  in  appearance  and  has  ^,              ,  ■      .        1      •  1     1                        ,  .  , 

,,    ,                 ,       r  A.      ,,,     •           r  ,         ,       ^,       ,  ^he  vessel  is  rigged  with  three  masts,  which  are  113 

all  the  earmarks  of  Air.  Alden  s  careful  work.     1  he  plans  ,-    .  r           1    t    .     .      1       t-i      1            -^^  •       o   r    . 

•^  teet  from  deck  to  truck.      I  he  bowsprit  is  48  feet  out- 
show  a  vessel  with  unusual  freight  capacity  for  one  of  Ury^^A 

her    size.     There    is    a    house    forward,    in    which    are  The  general  dimensions  are: 

the  quarters  for  the  crew,  a  galley  and  the  engine  space.  Length  on  deck                         ici2     feet 

In  the  after  house  is  the  captain's  cabin,  10  feet  square,  Length,  registered 142       " 

a  messroom  of  the  same  size,  the  captain's  stateroom,  10  Breadth   33       " 

feet  6  inches  by  6  feet  2  inches,  a  bathroom,  a  chartroom,  Depth  of  hold   I2>1  " 


Fig.  213b.     MidsUp  Section  of  AnxiUary  Schooner,  Designed  by  John  G.  Alden 


.:..n/iCjO''H..l 


/Vf  M'  Y0K.K  Pilot £pAT., 


SaU  Flan  and  lines  of  New  York  Pilot  Boat.    Drawn  by  Geo.  B.  Douglas 

Fig.  214  • 


Profile  and  Deck  Plans  of  47-Foot  Tug,   Built  br  L.  D.  ,~i;::,  Jro;::  To  irua  ty  J.  riurrsy  ~;at:3 


Construction  Plan  of  47-Faot  Tug  For  South  American  Service,  Equipped  With  a  Kahlenberg  Heavy-Oil  Engine  of  90-100  H.P. 

Fig.   215 

Length 47  feet  o'  inches 

Breadth  12     "     o      " 

Draught,  running 4     "      8       " 


.^oa 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


North  RiveR  Schooneh. 

>yM.  DiCKL  X 

Hr/icK.  MY. 


i.i»^^ 


Lines  and  Sections  of  77-Faot  Nortii  River  Schooner 


Sail  Flan  of  North   Biver   Schooner 
Fig.  217 


Length  o.  a •]•]  feel     Main  topmast,  o.  a. 

Length  on  w.  1 64 

Breadth 24 

Draught ' 7 

Foremast,  deck  to  cap 59 

Main  mast,  deck  to  cap 69 


27  feet 


Boom,   main    48     ' 

Boom,   fore    27     ' 

Gaff,  main 29     ' 

Gaff,  fore 26     ' 

Bowsprit,  outboard    24  .  ' 


Chapter  XX 

Definitions  of  Terms  Used  by  Shipbuilders  and  of  Parts  of  Wooden  Ships 

Note. — Items  marked  *  are  clearly   shown  on  one  or  more  of  the  illustrations. 


Abut. — When  two  timbers  or  planks  are  united  endways, 
they  are  said  to  butt  or  abut  against  each  other. 

Adhesion  of  surfaces  glued  together.  From  Mr.  Bevan's  ex- 
periments it  appears  that  the  surfaces  of  dry  ash-wood,  cemented 
by  glue  newly  made,  in  the  dry  weather  of  summer  would,  after 
twenty-four  hours'  standing,  adhere  with  a  force  of  715  tb  to  the 
square  inch.  But  when  the  glue  has  been  frequently  melted  and 
the  cementing  done  in  wet  weather,  the  adhesive  force  is  re- 
duced to  from  300  to  SCO  lb  to  the  square  inch.  When  fir  cut  in 
autumn  was  tried,  the  force  of  adhesion  was  found  to  be  562  lb 
to  the"  square  inch.  Mr.  Bevan  found  the  force  of  cohesion  in 
solid  glue  to  be  equal  to  4,000  lb  to  the  square  inch,  and  hence 
concludes  that  the  application  of  this  substance  as  a  cement  is 
capable  of  improvement. 

Adhesive  Force  of  nails  and  screws  in  different  kinds  of 
wood.  Mr.  Bevan's  experiments  were  attended  with  the  following 
results : — Small  brads,  4,560  in  the  pound,  and  the  length  of  each 
44/100  of  an  inch,  force  into  dry  pine  to  the  depth  of  0.4  inch, 
in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  grain,  required  22  lb  to  extract 
them.  Brads  half  an  inch  long,  3,200  in  the  pound,  driven  in  the 
same  pine  to  0.4  inch  depth,  required  37  lb  to  extract  them. 
Nails  618  in  the  pound,  each  nail  134  inch  long,  driven  0.5  inch 
deep,  required  58  lb  to  extract  them.  Nails  2  inches  long,  130  in 
the  pound,  driven  i  inch  deep,  took  320  lb.  Cast-iron  nails,  i  inch 
long,  380  in  the  pound,  driven  0.5  inch,  took  72  lb.  Nails  2  inches 
long,  73  in  the  pound,  driven  i  inch,  took  170  lb ;  when  driven 
iV>  inch  they  took  327  tb,  and  when  driven  2  inches  530  lb.  The 
adhesion  of  nails  driven  at  right  angles  to  the  grain  was  to  force 
of  adhesion  when  driven  with  the  grain,  in  pine,  2  to  i,  and  in 
green  elm  as  4  to  3.  If  the  force  of  adhesion  of  a  nail  and 
pine  be  170,  then  in  similar  circumstances  the  force  for  green 
sycamore  will  be  312,  for  dry  oak  507,  for  dry  beech  667.  A 
common  screw  i/s  of  an  inch  diameter  was  found  to  hold  with 
a  force  three  times  greater  than  a  nail  214  inches  long,  73  of 
which  weighed  a  pound,  when  both  entered  the  same  length  into 
the  wood. 

Adze. — A  cutting  tool  for  dubbing,  much  used  by  shipwrights. 

Afloat. — Borne  up  by,  floating  in,  the  water. 

After-Body. — That  part  of  a  ship's  body  abaft  midships  or 
dead-flat. 

After-Hoods. — The  after  plank  of  all  in  any  strake,  outside 
or  inside. 

After  Timbers. — All  timbers  abaft  the  midships  or  dead-flat. 

*  Air  Course. — An  opening  left  between  strakes  of  ceiling  to 
allow  air  to  circulate  around  frames.     (Fig.  28.) 

Air-Ports. — Circular  apertures  cut  in  side  of  a  vessel  to 
admit  light  and  air  to  state-rooms,  etc.  Closed  with  a  light  of 
glass,  set  in  a  composition- frame  and  turning  on  a  hinge,  se- 
cured when  closed  by  a  heavy  thumb-screw. 

Amidships. — Signifies  the  middle  of  ship,  as  regards  both 
length  and  breadth. 

Anchor  Chock. — A  chock  bolted  upon  the  gunwale  for  the 
bill  of  sheet-anchor  to  rest  on. 

Anchor-crane  is  employed  for  taking  anchors  in  board,  thus 
replacing  cat-heads,  cat-davits  and  fish-davits. 

*  Anchor-Lining. — Short  pieces  of  plank,  or  plate  iron  fast- 
ened to  sides  of  ship  to  prevent  the  bill  of  anchor  from  wounding 
the  ship's  side  when  fishing  the  anchor. 


Anchor  Stock,  To. — Sec  "To  Anchor  Stock." 

An-End. — The  position  of  any  mast,  etc.,  when  erected 
perpendicularly  on  deck.  The  topmasts  are  an-end  when  hoisted 
up  to  their  stations.  This  is  also  a  common  phrase  for  ex- 
pressing the  forcing  of  anything  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
as  to  force  one  plank  to  meet  the  butt  of  the  one  last  worked. 

Angle-Bracket. — A  bracket  placed  in  an  interior  or  exterior 
angle,  and  not  at  right  angles  with  the  planes  which  form  it. 

Anvil. — A  block  of  iron  on  which  shipsmiths  hammer  forge- 
work. 

*  Apron. — A  timber  conforming  to  shape  of  stem,  and  fixed 
in  the  concave  part  of  it,  extending  from  the  head  to  some 
distance  below  the  scarph  joining  upper  and  lower  stem-pieces. 
(Fig.  25.) 

Ballast,  heavy  substances  placed  in  the  hold  of  a  ship  to 
regulate  the  trim,  and  to  bring  the  center  of  gravity  of  ship 
to  its  proper  place.  It  is  distinguished  as  metal  and  shingle. 
Metal  is  composed  of  lead  or  iron. 

Batten,  thin  and  narrow  strips  of  wood.  Grating  battens 
unite  the  ledges  that  form  the  covering  for  the  hatchways. 
(See  Grating.)  Battens  to  hatchways  are  battens  used  for 
securing  tarpaulins  over  hatchways  to  prevent  the  sea  from 
linding  a  passage  between  the  decks. 

Baulk. — A  piece  of  whole  timber,  being  the  squared  trunk  of 
any  of  the  trees. 

Bearing. — The  space  between  the  two  fixed  extremes  of  a 
piece  of  timber;  the  unsupported  part  of  a  piece  of  timber;  also, 
the  length  of  the  part  that  rests  on  the  supports. 

*  Half  Beams  are  short  beams  introduced  to  support  the 
deck  where  there  is  no  framing,  as  in  places  where  there  are 
hatchways.     (Fig.  27.) 

The  Midship  Beam  is  the  longest  beam  of  ship,  lodged 
between  the  widest  frame  of  timbers. 

*  Bcarding-Line. — A  curved  line  occasioned  by  bearding  the 
deadwood  to  the  form  of  the  body;  this  line  forms  a  rabbet  for 
the  timbers  to  step  on ;  hence  it  is  often  called  the  Stepping-Line. 
(Fig.  36.) 

Beetle. — A  large  mallet  used  by  caulkers  for  driving  in  their 
reeming-irons  to  open  seams  for  caulkings. 

Belly. — The  inside  or  hollow  part  of  compass  or  curved 
timber,  the  outside  of  which  is  called  the  Back. 

*Bcnds. — An  old  name  for  the  frames  or  ribs  that  form  the 
ship's  body  from  keel  to  top  of  side  at  any  particular  station. 
They  are  first  put  together  on  the  ground.  That  at  the  broadest 
part  of  ship  is  the  Midship-Bend  or  Dead-Flat.  The  forepart  of 
wales  are  commonly  called  bends. 

Between-Decks. — The  space  contained  between  any  two 
decks   of   a   ship. 

Bevel. — A  well-known  instrument,  composed  of  a  stock  and 
a  movable  tongue,  for  taking  angles. 

Beveling  Board. — A  piece  of  board,  on  which  bevelings  or 
angles  of  the  timbers,  etc.,  are  described. 

Bevelings. — The  windings  or  angles  of  timbers,  etc.     A  term 
applied    to    any    deviation    from    a    square    or    right    angle 
bevelings   there   are   two   sorts.   Standing   Bevelings   and 
Bevelings.     By   the    former    is   meant   an    obtuse   angle, 
which  is  without  a  square;  and  by  the  latter  an  acute  angle,  or 
that  which  is  within  a  square. 


A  term 
mgle.  Ci% 
id  Unden 
'.,   or   that! 


202 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Bibbs. — Pieces  of  timber  bolted  to  the  hounds  of  mast  to 
support  trestle-trees. 

*  Bilge. — That  part  of  a  ship's  floor  on  either  side  of  keel 
which  has  more  of  a  horizontal  than  of  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion, and  on  which  the  ship  would  rest  if  on  the  ground.  (.Fig. 
28.) 

*  Bilge  Keels. — The  pieces  of  timber  fastened  under  bilge 
of  boats  or  other  vessels. 

*  Bilgeways. — A  square  bed  of  timber  placed  under  the  bilge 
of  the  ship,  to  support  her  while  launching. 

Bill-Board. — Projections  of  timber  bolted  to  side  of  ship 
and  covered  with  iron,  for  bills  of  bower  anchors  to  rest  on. 

Bill-Plate. — The  lining  of  bill-board. 

Binding  Strokes. — Thick  planks  on  decks,  running  just  out- 
side the  line  of  hatches,  jogged  down  over  the  beams  and  ledges. 

*Bitts  are  square  timbers  fixed  to  the  beams  vertically,  and 
enclosed  by  the  flat  of  deck;  they  are  used  for  securing  the 
cables  to,  and  for  leading  the  principal  ropes  connected  with 
the  rigging,  etc.     (Fig.  26.) 

Board. — A  piece  of  timber  sawed  thin,  and  of  ponsiderable 
length  and  breadth  as  compared  with  its  thickness. 

Boat-Chocks. — Clamps  of  wood  upon  which  a  boat  rests 
when  stowed  upon  a  vessel's  deck. 

Body. — The  body  of  a  ship  is  the  bulk  enclosed  within  the 
planking  of  hull  and  deck.  It  is  a  term  used  by  shipbuilders 
when  designing  some  particular  portion  of  a  ship's  longitudinal 
body,  as — Cant  Body,  or  the  portion  of  ship  along  which  cant 
frames  are  placed,  fore  Body,  or  portion  of  ship  ahead  of  square 
body.  After  Body,  or  portion  of  ship  aft  of  square  body. 
Square  Body,  or  portion  of  ship  where  square  frames  are  lo- 
cated. 

*  Body-Plan. — One  of  the  plans  used  in  delineating  the  lines 
of  a  ship,  showing  sections  perpendicular  to  length. 

Bollard. — A  belaying  bitt  placed  on  deck. 

Bolsters. — Pieces  of  wood  placed  on  the  lower  trestle-trees 
to  keep  the  rigging  from  chafing. 

Bolsters  for  Sheets,  Tacks,  etc.,  are  small  pieces  of  ash  or 
oak  fayed  under  the  gunwale,  etc.,  with  outer  surface  rounded 
to  prevent  sheets  and  other  rigging  from  chafing. 

Bolts. — Cylindrical  or  square  pins  of  iron  or  copper,  of 
various  forms,  for  fastening  and  securing  the  different  parts 
of  the  ship.  Of  bolts  there  are  a  variety  of  different  kinds, 
as  Eye-bolts,  Hook-bolts,  Ring-bolts,  Fixed-bolts,  Drift-bolts, 
Clevis-Bolts,  Toggle-bolts,  etc. 

Booby  Hatch. — A  small  companion,  readily  removed;  it  lifts 
off  in  one  piece. 

Boom-Kin. — A  boom  made  of  iron  or  wood  projecting  from 
bow  of  ship,  for  hauling  down  the  fore-tack;  also  from  their 
quarter,  for  securing  the  standing  part  and  leading  block  for 
the  main-brace. 

Boom^Irons. — .Are  metal  rings  fitted  on  the  yard-arms, 
through  which  the  studding-sail  booms  traverse;  there  is  one 
on  each  top-sail  yard-arm,  but  on  the  lower  yards  a  second, 
which  opens  to  allow  the  boom  to  be  triced  up. 

*  Booms. — The  main  boom  is  for  extending  the  fore-and-aft 
main  sail ;  the  spanker  boom  for  the  spanker ;  the  jib  boom  for 
the  jib  and  the  Aying  jib  boom  for  the  flying  jib.  The  studding- 
sail  booms  are  for  the  fore  and  main  lower,  top  and  top-gallant 
studding-sails  and  swinging  booms  for  bearing  out  the  lower 
studding-sails. 

Bottom. — All  that  part  of  a  vessel  that  is  below  the  wales. 
Bottom  Rail. — A  term   used  to  denote  the  lowest  rail   in   a 
piece  of  framed  work. 


*  Bow. — The  circular  part  of  ship  forward,  terminating  at 
the  rabbet  of  stem.     (Fig.  26.) 

Bows  are  of  different  kinds,  as  the  full  or  bluff  bow,  bell 
bow,  straight  bow,  flare-out  or  clipper  bow,  wave  bow,  water- 
borne  bow,  tumble-home  bow,  and  the  parabolic  bow. 

*  Bowsprit.— The  use  of  bowsprit  is  to  secure  the  foremast 
and  extend  the  head  sails.     (Fig.  25.) 

Bowsprit  Chock. — A  piece  placed  between  the  knight-heads, 
fitting  close  upon  the  upper  part  of  bowsprit. 

Bo.xing. — The  boxing  is  any  projecting  wood,  forming  a 
rabbet,  as  the  boxing  of  the  knight-heads,  center  counter  timber, 
etc. 

Brace. — A  piece  of  timber  in  any  system  of  framing  extend- 
ing across  the  angle  between  two  other  pieces  at  right  angles. 

Brates. — Straps  of  iron,  or  steel,  secured  with  bolts  and 
screws  in  stern-post  and  bottom  planks.  In  their  after  ends 
are  holes  to  receive  the  pintles  by  which  the  rudder  is  hung. 

Brad. — A  particular  kind  of  nail,  used-  in  floors  or  other 
work  where  it  is  deemed  proper  to  drive  nails  entirely  into  the 
wood.  To  this  end  it  is  made  without  a  broad  head  or  shoulder 
on  the  shank. 

Breadth. — A  term  applied  to  some  dimension  of  a  vessel 
athwarthships,  as  the  Breadth-Extreme  and  the  Breadth-Moulded. 
The  Extreme-Breadth  is  the  extent  of  midships  or  dead-flat,  with 
thickness  of  bottom  plank  included.  The  Breadth-Moulded  is 
the  same  extent,  without  the  thickness  of  plank. 

Breadth-Line. — A  curved  line  of  the  ship  lengthwise,  in- 
tersecting the  timbers  at  their  respective  broadest  parts. 

Break  is  the  name  given  to  the  termination  of  a  deck,  when 
interrupted  by  a  raised  quarter-deck,  sunk-forecastle,  etc.;  the 
front-bulkheads  placed  at  such  terminations  are  known  as 
"Break  bulkheads".  Any  elevation  of  a  ship's  deck,  no  matter 
whether  aft,  forward  or  amidships,  is  also  styled  a  "Break" 
and  the  extra  capacity  gained  by  such  raised  portion,  is  known 
as  the  "Tonnage  of  Break". 

Break. — The  sudden  termination  or  rise  in  the  decks  of 
merchant  ships. 

Breaking-Joint. — That  disposition  of  joints  by  which  the  oc- 
currence of  two  contiguous  joints  in  the  same  straight  line  is 
avoided. 

Breakwater  (on  a  forecastle,  etc.). — A  coaming  fastened 
diagonally  across  forecastle  deck  to  stop  water  that  is  thrown 
on  deck  when  ship  is  in  a  sea. 

*  Breast-Hooks. — Large  pieces  of  timber  fixed  within  and 
athwart  the  bows  of  a  ship,  through  which  they  are  well  bolted. 
There  is  generally  one  between  each  deck,  and  three  or  four 
below  the  lower  deck,  fayed  upon  the  plank.  Those  below  are 
placed  square  to  the  shape  of  ship  at  their  respective  places.  The 
Breast-Hooks  that  receive  the  ends  of  deck  planks  are  called 
Deck-Hooks,  and  are  fayed  close  home  to  the  timbers  of  decks. 

Bridge. — A  raised  superstructure  built  across  deck.  Some- 
times the  bridge  is  a  separate  structure,  but  more  frequently 
it  is  an  enclosed  portion  of  a  deck  house  on  which  is  located  the 
steering  wheel,  binnacle,  engine  room  telegraphs,  chart  house, 
etc. 

Bucklers.— Lids  or  shutters  used  for  closing  the  hawse-holes, 
holes  in  the  port-shutters  and  side-pipes. 

*  Bulkheads. — Transverse,  or  longitudinal,  partitions  in  a 
ship.  Solid  structural  bulkheads,  known  as  water-tight  bulk- 
heads, divide  a  ship  into  water-tight  compartments.  The  number 
and  locations  of  these  are  designated  in  building  rules  of  classi- 
fication societies. 

Bulls-Eye. — A  thick  piece  of  glass  inserted  in  topsides,  eta 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


203 


*  Bulwarks. — A  planked  railing  built  around  ship  above  the 
planksheer.  The  bulwarks  are  generally  built  on  a  continua- 
tion of  top  timbers  called  bulwark  stanchions.  The  names  of 
principal  parts  of  bulwarks  ai-e:  Bulwark  freeing  port,  bul- 
wark rail,  bulwark  stanchions,  bulwark  planking. 

*Butt. — The  joint  where  two  planks  meet  endwise. 
Butt-End. — The  end  of  a  plank  in  a  ship's  side.    The  root  or 
largest  end. 

*  Buttocks. — The  after-part  of  a  ship  on  each  side  below 
the  knuckle. 

*  Buttock-Lines.— Cui  the  ship  into  vertical  longitudinal 
sections,  parallel  to  the  center  line. 

Cabin. — The  living  space  for  officers  and  passengers.  The 
principal  room  is  called  the  Main  Cabin.  Entrance  to  cabin  is 
usually  through  a  raised  trunk  called  a  cabin  companion  trunk, 
or  cabin  companionway.  Any  skylight  placed  over  a  cabin  is 
called  a  cabin  skylight. 

Camber. — A  curve  or  arch.  Cambered  beam,  a  beam  bent  or 
cut  in  a  curve  like  an  arch. 

Cant. — A  term  signifying  the  inclination  that  anything  has 
from  perpendicular. 

Cant-Ribbands  are  ribbands  that  do  not  lie  in  a  horizontal 
or  level  direction,  or  square  from  the  middle  line,  as  the  diagonal 
ribbands. 

*  Cant-Timbers  are  those  timbers  afore  and  abaft,  whose 
planes  are  not  square  with,  or  perpendicular  to,  the  middle  line 
of  ship. 

Caps. — Square  pieces  of  oak  laid  upon  the  upper  blocks  on 
which  the  ship  is  built.  The  depth  of  them  may  be  a  few 
inches  more  than  the  thickness  of  false  keel. 

Capstan. — A  mechanical  device  for  handling  rope.  A  heaving 
appliance  which  takes  a  rope  around  its  barrel. 

*  Cartings. — Long  pieces  of  timber,  above  four  inches  square, 
which  lie  fore  and  aft,  from  beam  to  beam,  into  which  their 
ends  are  scored.  They  receive  the  ends  of  the  ledges  for  fram- 
ing the  decks. 

Carlings,  Hatchway,  are  the  fore  and  aft  frame  timbers  of 
hatchway  framing,  mast  carlings  are  the  fore  and  aft  partners 
of  mast.     (Fig.  27.) 

Carvel  Work. — Signifying  that  the  seams  of  bottom-plank- 
ing are  square,  and  made  tight  by  caulking. 

*  Cathead. — A  piece  of  timber  with  sheaves  in  the  end, 
projecting  from  bow  of  a  ship,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the 
anchor  after  cable  has  brought  it  clear  of  the  water.  It  is 
strengthened  outside  from  underneath  by  a  knee,  called  a  sup- 
porter. The  cathead  is  iron-bound,  and  is  braced  with  knees 
forward  and  aft,     (Fig.  35.) 

Caulking. — Forcing  oakum  into  the  seams  and  between  the 
butts  of  plank,  etc.,  to  prevent  water  penetrating  into  ship. 

Caulking-Matlet.— The  wooden  instrument  with  which  the 
caulking-irons  are  driven. 

Cainl. — A  large  cleat  for  belaying  the  fore  and  main  tacks, 
sheets,  and  braces  to. 

*  Ceiling. — The  inside  planks  of  the  bottom  of  a  ship.  It  is 
usually  designated  according  to  location,  thus : — Hold  Ceiling, 
Between  Deck  Ceiling,  Floor  Ceiling,  etc.     (Fig.  28.) 

Center  of  Buoyancy,  or  Center  of  Gravity  of  Displacement. 
— The  center  of  that  part  of  the  ship's  body  iijimersed  in  water, 
and  which  is  also  the  center  of  the  vertical  force  that  water 
exerts  to  support  the  vessel. 

Center  of  Effort  of  Sail. — That  point   in   the  plane  of  sails 


at  which  the  whole  transverse  force  of  wind  is  supposed  to  be 
collected. 

*  Chain-Bolts.— T\it  bolt  which  passes  through  the  toe-links, 
and  secures  the  chains  to  side.     (Fig.  28.) 

*  Chain-Plates.— Iron  plates  to  which  the  dead-eyes  are  se- 
cured; they  are  often  substituted  for  chains,  being  considered 
preferable.     (Fig.    25-28.) 

Chamfer. — To  cut  in  a  slope. 

*  Channels.— I'XSit  ledges  of  white  oak  plank  or  steel  pro- 
jecting outboard  from  the  ship's  side,  for  spreading  the  lower 
shrouds  and  giving  additional  support  to  masts.     (Fig.  25-28.) 

*  Check-Blocks. — Blocks  placed  upon  the  side  of  bitts  for 
fair  leaders. 

Cheek-Knees. — Knees  worked  above  and  below  the  hawse 
pipes  in  the  angle  of  bow  and  cutwater,  the  brackets  being  a 
continuation  of  them  to  the  billet  or  figurehead. 

Chine. — That  part  of  the  waterway  which  is  left  above  deck, 
and  hollowed  out  or  beveled  off  to  the  spirketting. 

Chinse. — A  mode  of  caulking  any  seams  or  butts. 

*  C/om/'j.— Strakes  of  timber  upon  which  the  deck  beams 
rest.  Clamps  are  placed  immediately  below  the  shelf  pieces  and 
serve  to  support  the  deck  frame.  Clamps  are  placed  below  each 
set  of  deck  beams  and  are  designated  by  affixing  the  name  of 
deck  to  the  word  clamp,  thus  : — Forecastle  Deck  Beam  Clamp 
supports  forecastle  deck  beams.  Upper  Deck  Beam  Clamp  sup- 
ports the  upper  deck  beams.  Main  Deck  Beam  Clamps  support 
main  deck  beams.  Hold  Deck  Beam  Clamps  support  the  hold 
deck  beams,  etc.     (Fig.  28.) 

.^Clamping. — Fastening  or  binding  by  a  clamp. 

Clear. — Free  from  interruption.  In  the  clear,  the  net  distance 
between  any  two  bodies,  without  anything  intervening. 

Cleats. — Pieces  of  wood  having  projecting  arms,  used  for 
belaying  ropes  to. 

Clinch  or  Clench.— To  spread  the  point,  or  rivet  it  upon  a 
ring  or  plate;  to  prevent  the  bolt  from  drawing  out,  same  as 
riveting. 

Clincher,  or  Clinker  Built. — A  term  applied  to  boats  built 
with  the  lower  edge  of  one  strake  overlapping  the  upper  edge 
of  the  one  next  below. 

*  Cooking. — The  placing  of  pieces  of  hard  wood,  either 
circular  or  square,  in  edges  or  surfaces  of  any  pieces  that  are  to 
be  united  together,  to  prevent  their  working  or  sliding  over  each 
other.     (Fig.  33.) 

*Coamings. — The  pieces  that  lie  fore-and-aft  in  the  framing 
of  hatchways  and  scuttles.  The  pieces  that  lie  athwart  ship,  to 
form  the  ends,  are  called  head-ledges.     (Fig.  27.) 

Cocking,  Cogging. — A  mode  of  notching  a  timber. 

Companion. — A  wooden  hood  or  covering  placed  over  a 
ladderway  to  a  cabin,  etc. 

■"  Counter. — A  part  of  the  stern.     (Fig.  25.) 

Counter-sunk. — The  hollows,  to  receive  the  heads  of  screws 
or  nails,  so  that  they  may  be  flush  or  even  with  the  surface. 

*  Counter  Timbers. — The  tirhbers  which  form  the  stern. 
Cove. — Any  kind  of  concave  moulding. 

*  Cradle. — A  strong  frame  of  timber,  etc.,  placed  under  the 
bottom  of  a  ship  to  conduct  her  steadily  till  slie  is  safely  launched 
into  water  sufficient  to  float  her. 

Cradle  Bolts. — Large  ring-bolts  in  the  ship's  side,  on  a  line 
with  and  between  the  toe-links  of  the  chain  plates. 

Crank. — A  term  applied  to  ships  built  too  deep  in  propor- 
tion to  their  breadth,  and  from  which  they  are  in  danger  of 
oversetting. 


204 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


Cross-Grained  Stuff.— T'\mher  having  the  grain  or  fibre  not 
corresponding  to  the  direction  of  its  length,  but  crossing  it,  or 
irregular.  Where  a  branch  has  shot  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree, 
the  timber  of  the  latter  is  curled  in  the  grain. 

*  Cross  Spalls.— Flanks  nailed  in  a  temporary  manner  to  the 
frames  of  ship  at  a  certain  height,  and  by  which  the  frames 
are  kept  to  their  proper  breadths  until  the  deck-knees  are 
fastened. 

Dagger.— A  piece  of  timber  that  faces  on  to  the  poppets 
of  bilgeways,  and  crosses  them  diagonally,  to  keep  them  to- 
gether. The  plank  that  secures  the  heads  of  poppets  is  called 
the  dagger  plank.  The  word  dagger  seems  to  apply  to  anything 
that  stands  diagonally  or  aslant. 

Dagger-Knees.— Knees  to  supply  the  place  of  hanging 
knees.  Their  sidearms  are  brought  up  aslant,  to  the  under  side 
of  beams  adjoining.  Any  straight  hanging  knees,  not  perpen- 
dicular to  the  side  of  beam,  are  in  general  termed  dagger-knees. 

*  Davits. — Pieces  of  steel  projecting  over  the  side  of  ship 
or  the  stern,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  boats.  Fish  Davits  are 
used  for  fishing  the  anchor. 

*  Dead-Eyes. — Pieces  of  elm,  ash  or  lignum-vitae,  of  a  round 
shape,  used  for  reeving  the  lanyards  of  standing  rigging.  (Fig. 
28.) 

Dead-Flat.— A  name  given  to  that  timber  or  frame  which 
has  the  greatest  breadth  and  capacity  in  the  ship,  and  which  is 
generally  called  the  midship  bend.  In  those  ships  where  there 
are  several  frames  or  timbers  of  equal  breadth  or  capacity, 
that  which  is  in  the  middle  should  be  always  considered  as  dead- 
Hat. 

*  Deadwood.— Forward  and  aft,  is  formed  by  solid  pieces  of 
timber  scarphed  together  lengthwise  on  keel.  These  should  be 
sufficiently  broad  to  admit  of  a  stepping  or  rabbet  for  the  heels 
of  the  timbers,  and  they  should  be  sufficiently  high  to  seat 
the  floors.  Afore  and  abaft  the  floors  deadwood  is  continued 
to  the  cutting-down  line,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  heels 
of   cant-timbers. 

*  Decks. — The  several  platforms  in  ships,  distinguished  by 
different  names  according  to  their  situations  and  purposes. 

'    *  Deck  Planks. — -The  flooring  or  covering  of  deck  beams. 

Deck  Transom. — A  timber  extending  across  the  ship  at  the 
after  extremity  of  deck,  on  which  the  ends  of  deck  plank  rests. 

Depth  of  Hold. — One  of  the  principal  dimensions  of  a 
ship;  it  is  the  depth  in  midships,  from  the  upper  side  of  the 
upper  deck  beams,  in  flush-decked  vessels,  and  from  the  upper 
side  of  the  lower  deck  beams  in  all  others,  to  the  throats  of 
the  floor  timbers. 

Diagonal  Lines. — Lines  used  principally  to  fair  the  bodies, 
shown  as  straight  lines  in  the  body-plan. 

Dished. — Formed  in  a  concave.  To  dish  out,  to  form  coves 
by  wooden   ribs. 

Displacement.^The  volume  of  water  displaced  by  the  im- 
mersed body  of  ship,  and  which  is  always  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  whole  body. 

Distribution. — The  dividing  and  disposing  of  the  several 
parts,  according  to  some  plan. 

Dog. — A  tool  (iron)  used  by  shipwrights;  it  is  made  of 
iron  having  both  ends  sharpened  and  one  turned  over  making  a 
right  angle.  In  planking  the  decks  or  outside  it  is  first  driven  a 
short  distance  into  the  beams  or  frame  timbers  and  wedges 
introduced  between  that  and  the  strake's  edge  to  force  the 
plank  up  to  the  one   last   worked. 

Door-Case. — The  frame  which  incloses  a  door. 

Door-Post. — The  post  of  a  door. 


Door-Stops. — Pieces  of  wood  against  which  the  door  shuts 
in  its  frame. 

Doorway. — The  entrance  into  a  cabin,  or  room.  The  forms 
and  designs  of  doorways  should  partake  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  finish  of  room  it  opens  into. 

Doubling. — The  covering  of  a  ship's  bottom  or  side,  with- 
out taking  oflf  the  old  plank,  a  method  sometimes  resorted  to 
when  the  plank  get  thin  or  worn  down. 

*  Dove-Tailing. — Joining  two  pieces  together  with  a  mortise 
and  tenon  resembling  the  shape  of  a  dove's  tail. 

Dove-Tail  Plates.— Meia.\  plates  resembling  dove-tails  in 
form,  let  into  the  heel  of  stern-post  and  keel,  to  bind  them  to- 
gether. 

Dowel.— To  fasten  two  boards  or  pieces  together  by  pins 
inserted  in  their  edges.     This  is  similar  to  coaking. 

Draft  of  Water.— The  depth  of  water  a  ship  displaces  when 
she  is  afloat. 

Drag. — A  term  used  to  denote  an  excess  of  draft  of  water 

Drift. — A  piece  of  iron  or  steel-rod  used  in  driving  back  a 
key  of  a  wheel,  or  the  like,  out  of  its  place,  when  it  cannot  be 
struck  directly  with  the  hammer.  The  drift  is  placed  against  the 
end  of  the  key,  or  other  object,  and  the  strokes  of  the  hammer 
are  communicated  through  it  to  the  object  to  be  displaced. 

Dubb,  To. — To  smooth  and  cut  off  with  an  adze. 

Entrance. — The  forward  part  of  a  vessel  below  the  water- 
aft. 

Even-Keel. — When  the  vessel  has  the  same  draught  of  water 
forward  and  aft,  she  is  said  to  be  on  an  even-keel. 

Falling  Home  or  Tumbling  Home.— A  term  applied  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  topside  of  a  ship,  when  it  falls  very  much 
within  a  vertical  line  from  the  main  breadth. 

*  False  Keel.— A  thin  keel,  put  on  below  the  main  keel,  that 
it  may  be  torn  off  without  injury  to  the  main  keel,  should  the 
vessel  touch  the  ground. 

*  Fashion  Picccs.—T\mhers  that  give  the  form  or  fashion 
of  the  after  extremity,  below  the  wing  transom,  when  they 
terminate  at  the  tuck  in  square-sterned  ships. 

Fay. — To  fit  with  a  close  joint. 

Feather-Edged  Boards.— Zod^ris  made  thin  on  one  edge. 

Felt  Grain.— Timber  split  in  a  direction  crossing  the  annular 
layers  towards  the  center.  When  split  conformably  with  the 
layers  it  is  called  the  quarter  grain. 

Felloes.— The  arch  pieces  which  form  the  rim  of  the  steer- 
ing wheel. 

Fid.— A  bar  of  wood  or  iron  used  to  support  the  top-mast 
and  top-gallant  masts  when   they  are  on  end. 

*  Fid-Hole. — Mortises  in  the  heels  of  top-masts  and  top- 
gallant-masts. 

*  Fife  i?aj7.— Rails  placed  around  the  mast  in  which  the  pins 
are  placed  to  belay  the  running  rigging  to.     (Fig.  26.) 

Fillet. — A  small  moulding,  generally  rectangular  in  section, 
and  having  the  appearance  of  a  narrow  band. 

Fillings. — Pieces  placed  in  the  openings  between  the  frames 
wherever  solidity   is  required. 

Firrings. — Pieces  of  wood  nailed  to  any  range  of  scantlings 
to  bring  them  to  one  plane. 

Fishing,  Fished  Beam. — A  built  beam,  composed  of  two 
beams  placed  end  to  end,  and  secured  by  pieces  of  wood  covering 
the  joint  on  opposite  sides. 

Fit-Rod. — A  small  iron  rod  with  a  hook  at  the  end,  which 
is  put  into  the  holes  made  in  a  vessel's  side,  etc.,  to  ascertain  the 
lengths  of  bolts  required  to  be  driven  in. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


205 


Fishes. — Pieces  used  in  made  masts ;  also  cheek  pieces  carried 
to  sea  on  board  vessels  to  secure  a  crippled  mast  or  yard. 

Fixed  Blocks.— Sheet  chocks,  or  any  other  chock  placed  in  the 
side  of  a  vessel  to  lead  a  rope  through. 

Flaring. — The  reverse  of  Falling  or  Tumbling  Home.  As 
this  can  be  only  in  the  forepart  of  the  ship,  it  is  said  that  a  ship 
has  a  flaring  bow  when  the  topside  falls  outward  from  a  per- 
pendicular. Its  uses  are  to  shorten  the  cathead  and  yet  keep  the 
anchor  clear  of  the  bow.  It  also  prevents  the  sea  from  break- 
ing in  upon  the  forecastle. 

Flats. — A  name  given  to  timbers  amidships  that  have  no 
bevelings,  and  are  similar  to  dead-flat.     See  Dead-Flat. 

Flashiitgs. — In  plumbing,  pieces  of  lead,  zinc,  or  other  metal, 
used  to  protect  the  joinings  of  partitions  with  floor,  or  where  a 
coaming  joins  the  deck,  or  around  pipes  that  pass  through  a 
deck.  The  metal  is  let  into  a  joint  or  groove,  and  then  folded 
down  so  as  to  cover  and  protect  the  joinings. 

*  Floor. — The  bottom  of  a  ship,  or  all  that  part  on  each  side 
of  keel  which  approaches  nearer  to  a  horizontal  than  a  per- 
pendicular direction,  and  whereon  the  ship  rests  when  aground. 

*Floors,  or  Floor  Timbers.— TUe  timbers  that  are  fixed 
athwart  the  keel,  and  upon  which  the  whole  frame  is  erected. 
They  generally  extend  as  far  forward  as  the  foremast,  and  as  far 
aft  as  the  •  after  square  timber,  and  sometimes  one  or  two 
cant-floors   are   added. 

Flush.— With  a  continued  even  surface,  as  a  Flush  Deck, 
which  is  a  deck  upon  one  continued  line,  without  interruption, 
from  fore  to  aft. 

*  Fore  Body. — That  part  of  the  ship's  body  afore  midships 
or  dead-flat.  This  term  is  more  particularly  used  in  expressing 
the  figure  or  shape  of  that  part  of  ship. 

*  Fore-Foot. — The  foremost  piece  of  keel.  Also  called  gripe. 
(Fig.  25.) 

Forelock. — A  thin  circular  wedge  of  iron,  used  to  retain  a 
bolt  in  its  place,  by  being  thrust  through  a  mortise  hole  at  the 
point  of  bolt.  It  is  sometimes  turned  or  twisted  round  the 
bolt  to  prevent  its  drawing. 

Fore-Peak. — Close  forward  under  the  lower  deck. 

Fore-Sheet  Traveller. — An  iron  ring  which  travels  along  on 
the  fore-sheet  horse  of  a  fore-and-aft  vessel. 

*Foretop,  Trestle,  and  Cross-Trees. — Foretop,  a  platform 
surrounding  the  foremast-head:  it  is  composed  of  the  trestle- 
trees,  which  are  strong  bars  of  oak  timber  fixed  horizontally 
on  opposite  sides  of  foremast;  and  cross-trees,  which  are  of 
oak,  and  supported  by  the  cheeks  and  trestle-trees. 

Frame. — A  term  applied  to  any  assemblage  of  pieces  of 
timber  firmly  connected  together. 

*  Frames. — The  bends  of  timber  which  form  the  body,  of  a 
ship,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  one  floor-timber,  two  or 
three  futtocks,  and  a  top-timber  on  each  side,  which,  being  united 
together,  form  the  frame.     (Fig.  28.) 

*  Futtocks. — Timbers  of  the  frame  between  the  floors  and 
top-timbers. 

Gain. —  i.  A  beveling  shoulder.  2.  A  lapping  of  timbers. 
3.  The  cut  that  is  made  to  receive  a  timber. 

*  Garboard  Stroke. — That  strake  of  bottom  which  is  wrought 
next  the  keel,  and  rabbets  therein.     (Fig.  25.) 

Gauge. — Measure;  dimension. 

Gauged-Pilcs — Large  piles  placed  at  regular  distances  apart, 
and  connected  by  horizontal  beams,  called  runners  or  ivale-pieces, 
fitted  to  each  side  of  them  by  notching,  and  firmly  bolted.  A 
gauge  or  guide  is  thus  formed  for  the  sheeting  or  filling  piles. 


which  are  drawn  between  the  gauged-piles.  Gauged-piles  are 
called  also  standard  piles. 

Geometrical  Stairs. — Those  stairs  the  steps  of  which  are 
supported  at  one  end  only  by  being  built  into  the  wall. 

Girth. — In  practice,  the  square  of  the  quarter  girth  multi- 
plied by  the  length,  is  taken  as  the  solid  content  of  a  tree. 

Glass-Plate. — Specific  gravity,  2.453;  weight  of  a  cubic  foot, 
153  tb;  expansion  by  180°  of  heat,  from  32°  to  212°,  .00086  inch. 

Gore. — .\  wedge-shaped  or  triangular  piece. 

*  Goose-Neck. — An  iron  hinged  bolt,  with  strap  to  clasp  it, 
used  on  the  spanker,  lower  and  fish  booms.  The  bolt  fore- 
locks below  a  sort  of  gudgeon. 

Grade. — A  step  or  degree. 

Grain-Cut. — Cut  across  the  grain. 

Graining. — Painting  in  imitation  of  the  grain  of  wood. 

*  Gratings. — Lattice  coverings  for  hatchways  and  scuttles. 

*  Gripe. — A  piece  of  white  oak  or  elm  timber  that  com- 
pletes the  lower  part  of  the  knee  of  head,  and  makes  a  finish 
with  fore-foot.  It  bolts  to  stem,  and  is  farther  secured  by  two 
plates  of  copper  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  and  therefrom 
called  by  that  name. 

Grooving  and  Tonguing,  Grooving  and  Feathering,  Plough- 
ing and  Tonguing. — In  joinery,  a  mode  of  joining  boards,  which 
consists  in  forming  a  groove  or  channel  along  the  edge  of  one 
board,  and  a  continuous  projection  or  tongue  on  the  edge  of 
another  board.  When  a  series  of  boards  is  to  be  joined,  each 
board  has  a  groove  on  its  one  edge  and  a  tongue  on  the  other. 

*  Groundways. — Large  pieces  of  timber,  which  are  laid  upon 
piles  driven  in  the  ground,  across  the  building  slip,  in  order  to 
make  a  good  foundation  to  lay  blocks  on,  upon  which  the  ship 
is  to  rest. 

*  Gudgeons. — The  hinges  upon  which  rudder  turns.  Those 
fastened  to  ship  are  called  braces,  while  those  fastened  to 
rudder  are  called  pintles.     (Fig.  25.) 

Gunwale. — That  horizontal  plank  wliich  covers  the  heads 
of  timbers  between  the  main  and  fore  drifts.  Although  this 
term  is  so  commonly  employed,  there  is  really  not  a  piece  in 
the  present  structure,  either  of  an  iron  or  wooden  Merchant- 
vessel,  bearing  that  name. — In  wooden  vessels  the  upper  outer 
edge  of  the  Planksheer  may  be  considered  as  the  Gunwale. 

*  Half-Breadth  Plan. — A  ship-drawing,  showing  a  series  of 
longitudinal  transverse  sections. 

Half-Round. — A  moulding  whose  profile  is  a  semicircle ;  a 
bead ;  a  torus. 

Half-Timbers. — The  short  timbers  in  the  cant  bodies. 

Halving. — A  mode  of  joining  two  timbers  by  letting  them 
into  each  other. 

Hancc. — The  sudden  breaking-in  from  one  form  to  another, 
as  when  a  piece  is  formed,  one  part  eight-square  and  the  other 
part  cylindrical,  the  part  between  the  termination  of  these 
different  forms  is  called  the  fiance;  or  the  parts  of  any  timber 
where  it  suddenly  becomes  narrower  or  smaller. 

Handrail. — A  rail  to  hold  by.  It  is  used  in  staircases  to  assist 
in  ascending  and  descending.  When  it  is  next  to  the  open  newel, 
it  forms  a  coping  to  the  stair  balusters. 

*  Hanging-Knee. — Those  knees  against  the  sides  whose  arms 
hang  vertically  or  perpendicular.      (Fig.  28.) 

*  Hanging-Knees. — Knees  placed  vertically  under  the  deck- 
beams. 

Harpins. — A  continuation  of  the  ribbands  at  the  fore  and 
after  extremities  of  ship,  fixed  to  keep  the  cant-frames,  etc.,  in 
position,  until  outside  planking  is  worked. 


206 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


'^  Hawse-Holcs. — The  apertures  forward,  lined  with  iron 
casings,  for  the  chain  cables  to  pass  through.     (Fig.  25.) 

Hawse-Hook. — The  breast  hook  at  hawse-holes. 

*  Hawse-Pipes  or  Chain-Pipes. — The  pipes  in  deck,  through 
which  the  chain  cables  lead  to  the  lockers.     (Fig.  25.) 

Head. — The  upper  end  of  anything,  but  more  particularly 
applied  to  all  the  work  fitted  afore  the  stem,  as  the  figure,  the 
knee,  rails,  etc.  A  "scroll  head"  signifies  that  there  is  no  carved 
or  ornamental  figure  at  the  head,  but  that  the  termination  is 
formed  and  finished  off  by  a  volute,  or  scroll  turning  outward. 
A  "fiddle  head"  signifies  a  similar  kind  of  finish,  but  with  the 
scroll  turning  aft  or  inward. 

*Head-Lcdges. — The  'thwartship  pieces  which  frame  the 
hatchways  and  ladderways.     (Fig.  27.) 

Head-Rails. — Those  rails  in  the  head  which  extend  from  the 
back  of  figure  to  cathead  and  bows. 

Heart-Wood. — The  central  part  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree;  the 
duramen. 

Heel. — The  lower  end  of  any  timber.     To  incline. 
Helm. — The  rudder,  tiller  and  wheel,  taken  as  a  whole. 

*  Hogging. — The  arching  up  of  the  body  along  its  middle, 
occasioned  frequently  by  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  weights. 
Ships  hog  in  launching,  unless  tlie  after  part  of  vessel  is  prop- 
erly water-borne  till  she  is  clear  of  the  ways. 

Hood. — The  foremost  and  aftermost  plarik  in  each  strake. 

Hooding  Ends. — The  ends  of  hoods  where  they  abut  in  the 
rabbet  of  stem  and  stern-post. 

Horse. — The  iron  rod  placed  between  the  fife-rail  stanchions 
on  which  the  leading  blocks  are  rove  or  secured.  Also  in 
fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels,  it  is  a  stout  bar  of  iron,  with  a 
large  ring  or  thimble  on  it,  which  spans  the  vessel  from  side  to 
side  just  before  the  foremast,  for  the  fore-staysail  sheet;-  and 
when  required  one  is  also  used  for  the  fore  and  main-boom 
sheets  to  haul  down  to  and  transverse  on. 

Horse  Shoes. — Straps  of  composition  in  the  form  of  a 
horse  shoe,  used  for  securing  the  stem  to  keel,  placed  on  op- 
posite sides,  let  in  flush  and  bolted  through;  rings  are  now 
generally   used   instead. 

Horsing-Irons. — A  caulking-iron,  with  a  long  handle  -at- 
tached, which  is  struck  with  a  beetle  by  a  caulker  in  hardening 
up  oakum  in  seams  and  butts,  called  horsing-up. 

*  Hounding. — The  length  of  the  mast  from  the  heel  to  the 
lower  part  of  head. 

*  Hounds. — Those  projections  at  mast-heads  serving  as 
supports  for  the  trestle-trees  of  large,  and  rigging  of  smaller, 
vessels  to  rest  upon.     With  lower  masts  they  are  termed  cheeks. 

Housing. — The  space  taken  out  of  one  solid  to  admit  of  the 
insertion  of  the  extremity  of  another,  for  the  purpose  of  connect- 
ing them. 

In-and-Out.— The  bolts  that  are  driven  through  tlie  ship's 
side  are  said  to  be  in-and-out  bolts. 

Incise. — To  cut  in ;  to  carve. 

Indented. — Cut  in  the  edge  or  margin  into  points  like  teeth, 
as  an  indented  moulding. 

Inner  Post. — Worked  on  the  inside  of  the  main  post  running 
down  to  the  throat  of  stern-post  knee. 

Iron-Sick. — The  condition  of  vessels  when  the  iron-work 
becomes  loose  in  the  timbers  from  corrosion  by  gallic  acid. 

Iambs. — The  vertical  sides  of  any  aperture,  such  as  a  door,  a 
window. 

loint  of  Frame. — The  line  at  which  the  two  inner  surfaces 
of  the  frame-timber  meet. 


"'Keel. —  I  he  main  and  lowest  timber  of  a  ship,  extending 
longitudinally  from  the  stem  to  the  stern-post.  It  is  formed  of 
several  pieces,  which  are  scarphed  together  endways,  and  form 
the  basis  of  the  whole  structure.  Of  course,  it  is  usually  the 
first  thing  laid  down  upon  the  blocks.     (Fig.  30.) 

.*  Keelson,  or,  more  commonly.  Kelson. — The  timber,  formed 
of  long  square  pieces  of  oak,  fixed  within  the  ship  exactly  over 
keel  for  binding  and  strengthening  the  lower  part  of  ship;  for 
which  purpose  it  is  fitted  to,  and  laid  upon,  the  middle  of  the 
floor  timbers,  and  bolted  through  floors  and  keel.     (Fig.  25,  28.) 

Kcvel. — Large  wooden  cleats  to  belay  ropes  and  hawsers  to, 
commonly  called  Cavils. 

Key-Pile. — The  center  pile  plank  of  one  of  the  divisions  of 
sheeting  piles  contained  between  two  gauge  piles  of  a  cofferdam, 
or  similar  work.  It  is  made  of  a  wedge  form,  narrowest  at  the 
bottom,  and  when  driven,  keys  or  wedges  the  whole  together. 

King-Piece. — Another  and  more  appropriate  name  for  king- 
post. 

King-Post. — The  post  which,  in  a  truss,  extends  between  the 
apex  of  two  inclined  pieces  and  the  tie-beam,  which  unites  their 
lower  ends. 

Knee. — A  piece  of  timber  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the 
human  knee  when  bent. 

*  Knight-Heads. — Timbers  worked  on  each  side  of  the  stem 
and  apron.     (Fig.  26.) 

Knights  (also  called  "leer  bitts")  are  small  hilts,  placed 
behind  the  different  masts  on  the  upper-deck,  in  the  heads  of 
these  are  several  sheaveholes  {with  sheaves),  through  which  run- 
ning-rigging for  hoisting,  etc.,  is  rove;  with  the  exception  of 
some  Mediterranean  vessels,  they  are  now  very  rarely  found  in 
merchant  ships. 

Knots  in  Wood. — Some  kinds  render  wood  unfit  for  the  car- 
penter; some  kinds  are  not  prejudicial. 

Knuckle  of  the  Stern. — The  sudden  angle  made  by  the 
counter-timbers  and  after  cants. 

Kyanise,  v. — To  steep  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate, 
as  timber,  to  preserve  it  from  the  dry-rot. 

Lacing-Piece. — The  piece  running  across  the  top  of  head 
from  the  backing-piece  to  the  front-piece.     (Fig.  25.) 

Landing. — First  part  of  a  floor  at  the  end  of  a  flight  of 
steps.     Also,  a  resting-place  between  flights. 

Landing  Strake. — The  upper  strake  but  one  in  a  boat. 

Launch. — The  slip  upon  which  the  ship  is  built,  with  the 
cradle  and  all  connected  with  launching. 

*  Launching  Ribband. — An  oak  plank  bolted  to  outside  of 
the  launching  ways,  to  guide  the  cradle  in  its  descent  in  launch- 
ing. 

Lap,  V. — To  lap  boards  is  to  lay  one  partly  over  the  other. 

Lateral  Resistance. — The  resistance  of  water  against  the  side 
of  a  vessel  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  her  length. 

-  *Laying-Off,  or  Laying-Down. — The  act  of  delineating  the 
various  parts  of  ihe  ship,  to  its  true  size,  upon  the  mould-loft 
floor. 

*  Ledges. — The  pieces  of  the  deck  frame  lying  between  the 
beams  jogged  into  the  carlings  and  knees.     (Fig.  27.) 

Lee  Boards. — Similar  to  center-boards,  afiixed  to  the  sides  of 
llat-bottomed  vessels ;  these  on  being  let  down,  when  the  vessel 
Is  close-hauled,  decreas'e  her  drifting  to  leeward. 

Let-in,  To. — To  fix  or  fit  one  timber  or  plank  into  another, 
as  the  ends  of  carlings  into  beams,  and  the  beams  into  shelf  or 
clamps,  vacancies  being  made  in  each  to  receive  the  other. 

Level  Lines. — Lines  determining  the  shape  of  a  ship's  body 
horizontally,  or  square  from  the  middle  line  of  the  ship. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


207 


Lighter. — A  large  open  flat  bottom  vessel. 

*  Limber-Holes  or  Watercourses  are  square  grooves  cut 
through  the  underside  of  floor  timber,  about  nine  inches  from 
the  side  of  keel  on  each  side,  through  which  water  may  run 
toward  the  pumps,  in  the  whole  length  of  floors.  This  precaution 
is  requisite,  where  small  quantities  of  water,  by  the  heeling  of 
the  ship,  may  come  through  the  ceiling  and  damage  the  cargo. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  lower  futtocks  of  merchant  ships 
are  cut  off  short  of  the  keel.     (Fig.  28.) 

*  Limber-Passage. — A  passage  or  channel  formed  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  the  floor,  on  each  side  of  kelson,  for 
giving  v;ater  a  free  communication  to  the  pumps.  It  is  formed 
by  the  Limber-Strake  on  each  side,  a  thick  strake  wrought  next 
kelson.  This  strake  is  kept  about  eleven  inches  from  kelson, 
and  forms  the  passage  fore  and  aft  which  admits .  the  water 
to  the  pump-well.  The  upper  part  of  limber-passage  is  formed 
by  the  Limber-Boards  or  plates.  These  boards  are  composed 
of  iron  plates,  or  else  of  short  pieces  of  oak  plank,  one  edge  of 
which  is  fitted  by  a  rabbet  into  the  limber-strake,  and  the  other 
edge  beveled  with  a  descent  against  the  kelson.  They  are  fitted 
in  short  pieces,  for  the  convenience  of  taking  up  any  one  or 
more  readily.     (Fig.  28.) 

Lips  of  a  Scarph. — The  thin  parts  or  laps  of  scarph. 

Lockers. — Compartments  built  in  cabins,  etc.,  for  various 
purposes. 

Lock. — I.  Lock,  in  its  primary  sense,  is  anything  that 
fastens;  but  in  the  art  of  construction  the  word  is  appropriated 
to  an  instrument  composed  of  springs,  wards,  and  bolts  of  iron 
or  steel,  used  to  fasten  doors,  drawers,  chests,  etc.  Locks  on 
outer  doors  are  called  stock  locks;  those  on  chamber  doors,  spring 
locks;  and  such  as  are  hidden  in  the  thicki-.^s  of  the  doors  t& 
which  they  are  applied,  are  called  mortise  locks.  2.  A  basin  or 
chamber  in  a  canal,  or  at  the  entrance  to  a  dock.  It  has  gates 
at  each  end,  which  may  be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure.  By  means 
of  such  locks  vessels  are  transferred  from  a  higher  to  a  lower 
level,  or  from  a  lower  to  a  higher.  Whenever  a  canal  changes  its 
level  on  account  of  an  ascent  or  descent  of  the  ground  through 
which  it  passes,  the  place  where  the  change  takes  place  is  com- 
manded by  a  lock. 

Lock-Chainber. — In  canals,  tiie  area  of  a  lock  inclosed  by  the 
side  walls  and  gates. 

Lock-Gate. — The  gate  of  a  lock  provided  with  paddles. 

Lock-Paddle. — The  sluice 'in  a  lock  which  serves  to  fill  or 
empty  it. 

Lock-Pit. — The  excavated  area  of  a  lock. 
Lock-Sill. — An  angular  piece  of  timber  at  the  bottom  of  a 
lock,  against  which  the  gates  shut. 
Locker. — A  small  cupboard. 

Main  Breadth. — The  broadest  part  of  ship  at  any  particular 
timber  or  frame. 

*  Main-Wales. — The  lower  wales,  which  are  generally  placed 
on  the  lower  breadth,  and  so  that  the  main'  deck  knee-bolts  may 
come  into  them.     (Fig.  28.) 

Mallet. — A  large  wooden  hammer,  used  by  caulkers.' 
Manager  Board. — A  piece  of  oak  plank  fitted  over  deck  and 

running    from   side    to   side   a   short    distance    abaft   the   hawse 

pipes. 

Manger. — An  apartment  extending  athwart  the  ship,  im- 
mediately within  the  hawse-holes.  It  serves  as  a  fence  to  in- 
terrupt the  passage  of  water  which  may  come  in  at  the  hawse- 
holes  or  from  the  cable  when  heaving  in ;  and  the  water  thus 
prevented  from  running  aft  is  returned  into  the  sea  by  the 
manger-scuppers,  which  are  larger  than  the  other  scuppers  on 
that  account. 


Margin. — A  line  in  ships  having  a  square  stern,  at  a  parallel 
distance  down  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  wing  transom  forming 
the  lower  part  of  a  surface  for  seating  the  tuck  rail;  it  ter- 
minates at  the  ends  of  tlie  exterior  planking,  or  what  is  called 
the  tuck. 

*  Mast  Cartings,  large  carlings.on  each  side  of  mast;  they 
are  placed  at  equal  distances  from  the  middle  line,  and  apart 
the  diameter  of  mast,  and  sufiicient  for  wedging  on  each  side; 
they  score  and  face  into  the  beams,  before  and  abaft  mast, 
and  lap  on  them  about  two-thirds  the  breadth  of  beam,  and  are 
bolted  with  two  bolts  in  each  end.     (Fig.  27.) 

Mast-Coat. — A  canvas  covering  fitted  over  the  upper  ends  of 
the  mast  wedges  and  nailed  to  the  mast  and  mast  coaming  to 
prevent  any   leakage   around  the  mast. 

*  Mast  Partners,  commonly  called  cross  partners,  are  pieces 
placed  before  and  abaft  the  mast  for  the  wedges  to  come  against; 
they  are  let  into  a  double  rabbet  taken  out  of  mast  carlings, 
and  are  bolted  through  these,  with  two  or  three  bolts  in  end 
of  each  piece.     (Fig.  27.) 

Mauls. — Large  hammers  used  for  driving  treenails,  having 
a  steel  face  at  one  end  and  a  point  or  pen  drawn  out  at  the 
other.  Double-headed  mauls  have  a  steel  face  at  each  end  of 
the  same  size,  and  are  used  for  driving  bolts,  etc. 

Meta-Center. — That  point  in  a  ship  below  which  the  center 
of  gravity  of  weight  must  be  placed. 

Middle  Line. — A  line  dividing  the  ship  exactly  in  the  middle. 
In  the  horizontal  or  half-breadth  plan  it  is  a  right  line  bisecting 
the  ship  from  stem  to  stern-post;  and  in  the  plane  of  projection, 
or  body  plan,  it  is  a  perpendicular  line  bisecting  the  ship  from 
keel  to  height  of  top  of  side. 

Midships   (see  Amidships). 

*  Miter  or  Mitre,  the  mode  of  joining  two  solid  pieces  of 
timber;  the  surfaces  to  be  brought  together  are  so  formed,  that 
when  connected,  the  joint  shall  make  an  angle  with  the  side  of 
each  piece  that  shall  be  common  to  both. 

Momentum  of  a  body  is  the  product  of  weight  multiplied 
by  the  distance  of  its  center  of  gravity  from  a  certain  point, 
or  from  a  line  called  the  axis  of  momentum. 

*  Mortise. — A  hole  or  hollow  made  in  a  piece  of  timber, 
etc.,  in  order  to  receive  the  end  of  another  piece,  with  a  tenon 
fitted  exactly  to  fill  it. 

Moulded. — Cut  to  the  mould.  Also,  the  size  or  bigness  of 
the  timbers  the  way  the  mould  is  laid.    See  Sided. 

*  Moulds. — Pieces  of  board  made  to  the  shape  of  the  lines 
on  mould-loft  floor,  as  the  timbers,  harpins,  ribbands,  etc.,  and 
used  as  patterns  when  cutting  out  the  different  pieces  of  timber, 
etc.,  for  the  ship. 

Nail. — A  small  pointed  piece  of  metal,  usually  with  a  head, 
to  be  driven  into  a  board  or  other  piece  of  timber,  and  serving 
to  fasten  it  to  other  timber.  The  larger  kinds  of  instruments 
of  this  sort  are  called  spikes ;  and  a  long,  thin  kind,  with  a  flattish 
head,  is  called  a  brad.  There  are  three  leading  distinctions  of 
nails,  as  respects  the  state  of  the  metal  from  which  they  are 
prepared,  namely,  wrought  or  forged  nails,  cut  or  pressed  nails, 
and  cast  nails.  Of  the  wrought  or  forged  nails  there  are  about 
300  sorts,  which  receive  different  names,  expressing  for  the  most 
part  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied,  as,  deck,  scupper,  boat. 
Some  are  distinguished  by  names  expressive  of  their  form :  thus, 
rose,  clasp,  diamond,  etc.,  indicate  the  form  of  their  heads, 
and  Hat,  sharp,  spear,  chisel,  etc.,  their  points.  The  thickness  of 
any  specified  form  is  expressed  by  trade  terms. 

Offset,  or  Set-off. — A  horizontal  break. 

Ogee. — A  moulding  consisting  of  two  members,  one  concave 
and  the  other  convex.    It  is  called  also  cvma  reversa. 


208 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


*  Orlop-bcoDis  are  hold-beams,  fitted  below  the  lower-deck 
of  two  and  three-decked  vessels ;  their  spacing  is  greater,  and 
they  are  therefore  generally  heavier  than  the  beams  in  the  decks 
above.     (Fig.  28.) 

Orlop-deck  is  the  lowermost  deck  in  four-decked  ships. 

Ovolo. — A  moulding,  the  vertical  section  of  which  is,  in 
Roman  architecture,  a  quarter  of  a  circle ;  it  is  thence  called  the 
quarter-round.  In  Grecian  architecture  the  section  of  the  ovolo 
is  elliptical,  or  rather  egg-shaped. 

Panel. — An  area  sunk  from  the  general  face  of  the  surround- 
ing work;  also  a  compartment  of  a  wainscot  or  ceiling,  or  of 
the  surface  of  a  wall,  etc.  In  joinery,  it  is  a  thin  piece  of  wood, 
framed  or  received  in  a  groove  by  two  upright  pieces  or  styles, 
and  two  transverse  pieces  or  rails ;  as  the  panels  of  doors. 

Piles. — Beams  of  timber,  pointed  at  the  end,  driven  into  the 
soil  for  the  support  of  some  superstructure.  They  are  either 
driven  through  a  compressible  stratum,  till  they  meet  with  one 
that  is  incompressible,  and  thus  transmit  the  weight  of  the  struc- 
ture erected  on  the  softer  to  the  more  solid  material,  or  they  are 
driven  into  a  soft  or  compressible  structure  in  such  numbers  as 
to  solidify  it.  In  the  first  instance,  th^  piles  are  from  9  to  18 
inches  in  diameter,  and  about  twenty  times  their  diameter  in 
length.  They  are  pointed  with  iron  at  their  lower  end,  and 
their  head  is  encircled  with  an  iron. 

Pilc-Driver. — An  engine  for  driving  down  piles.  It  consists 
of  a  large  ram  or  block  of  iron,  termed  the  monkey,  which  slides 
between  two  guide-posts.  Being  drawn  up  to  the  top,  and  then  let 
fall  from  a  considerable  height,  it  comes  down  on  the  head  of  the 
pile  with  a  violent  blow. 

Pile-Planks. — Planks  about  9  inches  broad,  and  from  2  to  4 
inches  thick,  sharpened  at  their  lower  end,  and  driven  with  their 
edges  close  together  into  the  ground  in  hydraulic  works.  Two 
rows  of  pile-planks  thus  driven,  with  a  space  between  them 
filled  with  puddle,  is  the  means  used  to  form  watertight  coffer- 
dams and  similar  erections. 

Pin. — .\  piece  of  wood  or  metal,  square  or  cylindricrl  in 
section,  and  sharpened  or  pointed,  used  to  fasten  timbers  to- 
gether. Large  metal  pins  are  termed  bolts,  and  the  wooden  pins 
used  in  ship-building  treenails. 

Plank. — All  timber  from  one  and  a  half  to  four  inches  in 
thickness  has  this  name  given  to  it. 

*  Planking. — Covering  the  outside  of  a  ship's  timbers  with 
plank,  the  plank  being  the  outer  coating  when  the  vessel  is  not 
sheathed.     (Fig.  28.) 

*  Plank-Sheers,  or  Plank-Sheer. — The  pieces  of  plank  laid 
horizontally  over  timber-heads  of  quarter  deck  and  forecastle, 
for  the  purpose  of  covering  the  top  of  the  side ;  hence  some- 
times called  covering-boards.     (Fig.  28.) 

Planted. — In  joinery,  a  projecting  member  wrought  on  a 
separate  piece  of  stuff,  and  afterwards  fixed  in  its  place,  is  said 
to  be  planted;  as  a  planted  moulding. 

*  Poppets. — Those  pieces  which  are  fixed  perpendicularly 
between  the  ship's  bottom  and  the  bilgeways,  at  the  fore  and 
aftermost  parts  of  the  ship,  to  support  her  in  launching. 

*  Preventer-Bolts. — The  bolts  passing  through  the  lower  end 
of  the  preventer-plates,  to  assist  the  chain-bolts  in  heavy  strains. 
(Fig.  28.) 

Preventer-Plates. — Short  plates  of  iron  bolted  to  the  side  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  chains,  as  extra  security. 

Pump.—Tht  machine  fitted  in  the  wells  of  ships  to  draw 
water  out  of  the  hold. 

Quarter-Grain. — When  timber  is  split  in  the  direction  of  its 
annular  plates  or  rings.  When  it  is  split  across  these,  towards 
the  center,  it  is  called  the  felt-grain 


Quarter-Round. — The  echinus  moulding. 

Quicken,  To. — To  give  anything  a  greater  curve.  For  in- 
stance, "To  quicken  the  sheer"  is  to  shorten  the  radius  by  which 
the  curve  is  struck.  This  term  is  therefore  opposed  to  straight- 
ening the  sheer. 

Quick-Work. — A  term  given  to  the  strakes  which  shut  in 
between  the  spirketing  and  the  clamps.  By  quick-work  was 
formerly  meant  all  that  part  of  a  merchant  vessel  below  the 
level  of  the  water  when  she  is  laden. 

*  Rabbet. — A  joint  made  by  a  groove  or  channel  in  a  piece 
of  timber,  cut  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  and  securing  the 
edge  or  ends  of  planks,  as  the  planks  of  bottom  into  the  keel, 
stem    or    stern-post,    or    the    edge    of    one    plank    into    another. 

Rag-Bolt. — A  sort  of  bolt  having  its  point  jagged  or  barbed, 
to  make  it  hold  the  more  securely. 

Rails. — The  horizontal  timbers  in  any  piece  of  framing. 
Rake. — A  slope  or  inclination. 

Rake. — The  overhanging  of  the  stem  or  stern  beyond  a 
perpendicular  with  the  keel,  or  any  part  or  thing  that  forms 
an  obtuse  angle  with  the  horizon. 

Raking  Mouldings. — Tliose  which  are  inclined  from  the 
horizontal  line. 

Ram-Line. — A  small  rope  or  line,  sometimes  used  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  the  sheer  or  hang  of  the  decks,  for  setting 
the  beams  fair,  etc. 

Razing. — The  act  of  marking  by  a  mould  on  a  piece  of  tim- 
ber, or  any  marks  made  by  a  tool  called  a  razing-knife  or  scriber. 

Reeming. — The  opening  of  the  seams  of  plank  for  caulking 
by  driving  in  irons  called  reeming  irons. 

Rends. — Large  shakes  or  splits  in  timber  or  plank,  most 
common  to  plank. 

Riding-Bitts  are  bitts  to  which  chain-cables  are  belayed  when 
a  ship  is  anchored. 

Ring-Bolts. — Eye-bolts  having  a  ring  passed  through  the 
eye  of  the  bolt. 

*Room  and  Space. — The  distance  from  one  frame  to  the 
adjoining  one. 

Rough-Hew. — To  hew  coarsely  without  smoothing,  as  to 
rough-hew  timber. 

Roivlucks. — Places  either  raised  above  or  sunk  in  the  gun- 
wale of  a  boat  used  to  place  the  oar  in  when  rowing. 

Rudder. — The  machine  by  which  the  ship  is  steered. 

Rudder-Stock. — The  main  piece  of  a  rudder. 

Run. — The  narrowing  of  the  after-part  of  ship;  thus  a  ship 
is  said  to  have  a  full,  fine,  or  clean  run. 

Sagging. — The  contrary  of  hogging. 

*  Sampson-Knee. — A  knee  used  to  strengthen  riding  bitts. 

Saucers. — Metal  steps  bolted  to  the  aft-side  of  the  rudder- 
post  below  a  brace,  so  that  the  plug  of  the  pintle  will  rest  on 
it,  and  keep  the  straps  of  pintles  and  braces  from  coming  in 
contact,  thereby  lessening  the  friction  to  be  overcome  in  turning 
the  rudder.  The  pintles  which  rest  on  these  saucers  are  made 
with  longer  plugs,  and  are  called  saucer-pintles. 

.Sap-Wood. — The  external  part  of  the  wood  of  exogens,  which 
from  being  the  latest  formed,  is  not  filled  up  with  soild  matter. 
It  is  that  through  which  the  ascending  fluids  of  plants  move 
most  freely.  For  all  building  purposes  the  sap-wood  is  or  ought 
to  be  removed  from  timber,  as  it  soon  decays. 

Scantling. — The  dimensions  given  .  for  the  timbers,  planks, 
etc.  Likewise  all  quartering  under  five  inches  square,  which 
is  termed  scantling;  all  above  that  size  is  called  carling. 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


2og 


*  Scarphing. — The  letting  of  one  piece  of  timber  or  plank 
into  another  with  a  lap,  in  such  a  manner  that  both  may  appear 
as  one  solid  and  even  surface,  as  keel-pieces,  stem-pieces, 
clamps,  etc. 

*  Scarphs.- — Scarphs  are  called  vertical  when  their  surfaces 
are  parallel  to  the  sides,  and  flat  or  horizontal  when  their  sur- 
faces are  opposite,  as  the  scarphs  of  keelson  and  keel.  They 
are  hook-scarphs  when  formed  with  a  hook  or  projection,  as 
the  scarphs  of  stem;  and  key-scarphs,  when  their  lips  are  set 
close  by  wedge-like  keys  at  the  hook,  as  the  scarphs  of  beams. 

*  Schooner. — A  vessel  with  two,  three  or  more  masts,  with 
fore-and-aft  sails  set  on  gaffs.  A  topsail  schooner  has  a  fore- 
topsail,  and  sometimes  a  fore-topgallant  sail. 

Scuppers. — Holes  cut  through  water-ways  and  side,  and  lined 
with  lead,  to  convey  water  to  the  sea. 

Scuttle. — An  opening  in  deck  smaller  than  a  hatchway. 

Screw-Jack. — A  portable  machine  for  raising  great  weights 
by  the  agency  of  a  screw. 

Scribe. — To  mark  by  a  rule  or  compasses ;  to  mark  so  as  to 
fit  one  piece  to  another. 

Seams. — The  spaces  between  the  planks  when  worked. 

Seasoning. — A  term  applied  to  a  ship  kept  standing  a  certain 
time  after  she  is  completely  framed  and  dubbed  out  for  plank- 
ing, which  should  never  be  less  than  six  months,  when  circum- 
stances will  permit.  Seasoned  plank  or  timber  is  such  as  has 
been  cut  down  and  sawed  out  one  season  at  least,  particularly 
when  thoroughly  dry  and  not  liable  to  shrink. 

Seating. — That  part  of  the  floor  which  fays  on  deadwood, 
and  of  a  transom  which  fays  against  the  post. 

Sending  or  'Scending. — The  act  of  pitching  violently  into  the 
hollows  or  intervals  of  waves. 

Setting  or  Setting-to.— The  act  of  making  the  planks,  etc., 
fay  close  to  the  timbers,  by  driving  wedges  between  the  plank, 
etc.,  and  a  wrain  staff.  Hence  we  say,  "set  or  set  away,"  meaning 
to  exert  more  strength.  The  power  or  engine  used  for  the 
purpose  of  setting  is  called  a  Sett,  and  is  composed  of  two 
ring-bolts  and  a  wrain  staff,  cleats  and  lashings. 

Shaken  or  Shaky.— A  natural  defect  in  plank  or  timber  when 
it  is  full  of  splits  or  clefts,  and  will  not  bear  fastening  or 
caulking. 

Sheathing. — A  thin  sort  of  doubling  or  casing  of  yellow  pine 
board  or  sheet  copper,  and  sometimes  of  both,  over  the  ship's 
bottom,  to  protect  the  planks  from  worms,  etc.  Tar  and  hair, 
or  brown  paper  dipped  in  tar  and  oil,  is  laid  between  the 
sheathing  and  the  bottom. 

Sheer.— The  longitudinal  curve  or  hanging  of  a  ship's  side 
in  a  fore-and-aft  direction. 

Sheer-Draught. — The  plan  of  elevation  of  a  ship,  whereon 
is  described  the  outboard  works,  as  the  wales,  sheer-rails,  ports, 
drifts,  head,  quarters,  post  and  stem,  etc.,  the  hang  of  each 
deck  inside,  the  height  of  the  water-lines,  etc. 

Sheers. — Elevated  spars,  connected  at  upper  ends,  used  in 
masting  and  dismasting  vessels,  etc. 

Sheers.— Two  masts  or  spars  lashed  or  bolted  together  at  or 
near  the  head,  provided  with  a  pulley,  and  raised  to  nearly  a 
vertical  position,  used  in  lifting  stones  and  other  building 
materials. 

*  Sheer-Strake.—Tht  strake  or  strakes  wrought  in  the  top- 
side, of  which  the  upper  edge  is  the  top-timber  line  or  top  of 
side.  It  forms  the  chief  strength  of  the  upper  part  of  top- 
side, and  is  therefore  always  worked  thicker  than  the  other 
strakes,  and  scarphed  with  hook  and  butt  between  the  drifts. 
(Fig.  25.) 


Sheet-Piles,  Sheeting-Piles. — Piles  formed  of  thick  plank, 
shot  or  jointed  on  the  edges,  and  sometimes  grooved  and  tongued, 
driven  closely  together  between  the  main  or  gauge  piles  of  a 
coffer-dam  or  other  hydraulic  work,  to  inclose  the  space  so  as 
either  to  retain  or  exclude  water,  as  the  case  may  be.  Sheeting- 
piles  have  of  late  been  formed  of  iron. 

"^  Shelf-Pieces.— A  strake  worked  for  deck  beams  to  rest  on 
where  iron  hanging  knees  are  to  be  used.     (Fig.  28.) 

Shift. — A  term  made  use  of  to  denote  the  position  of  butts 
and  scarphs  of  planks  and  timber. 

Shore. — An  oblique  brace  or  support,  the  upper  end  resting 
against  the  body  to  be  supported. 

Shoulder. — Among  artificers,  a  horizontal  or  rectangular  pro- 
jection from  the  body  of  a  thing.  Shoulder  of  a  tenon,  the  plane 
transverse  to  the  length  of  a  piece  of  timber  from  which  the 
tenon  projects.  It  does  not,  however,  always  lie  in  the  plane 
here  defined,  but  sometimes  lies  in  different  planes. 

Sirmarks. — Stations  marked  upon  the  moulds  for  the  frame 
timber,  etc.,  indicating  where  the  bevelings  are  to  be  applied. 

Skeg. — The  after-end  of  the  keel.  The  composition  piece 
supporting  the  heel  of  an  equipoise  rudder. 

Skew,  or  Askew. — Oblique ;  as  a  skew-hxiAge. 
Snaping. — Cutting  the  ends  of  a  stick  off  beveling  so  as  to 
fay  upon  an  inclined  plane. 

Sny  or  Hang. — When  the  edges  of  strakes  of  plank  curve 
up  or  down,  they  are  said  to  sny  or  hang;  if  down,  to  hang;  if 
up,  to  sny. 

Specific  Gravity. — The  relative  weight  of  any  body  when 
compared  with  an  equal  bulk  of  any  other  body.  Bodies  are 
said  to  be  specifically  heavier  than  other  bodies  when  they 
contain  a  greater  weight  under  the  same  bulk;  and  when  of 
less  weight,  they  are  said  to  be  specifically  lighter. 

Spiles. — Wooden  pins  used  for  driving  into  nail-holes. 
Those  for  putting  over  bolt-heads  and  deck-spikes  are  cylindrical, 
and  are  called  plugs. 

*  Spirketting. — The  strakes  of  plank  worked  between  the 
lower  sills  of  ports  and  waterways.     (Fig.  28.) 

Sprung. — A  yard  or  mast  is  said  to  be  sprung  when  it  is 
cracked  or  split. 

Square  Framed. — In  joinery,  a  work  is  said  to  be  square 
framed  or  framed  square,  when  the  framing  has  all  the  angles 
of  its  styles,  rails,  and  mountings  square  without  being  moulded. 

Square-Body. — The  square  body  comprises  all  those  frames 
that  are  square  to  the  center  line  of  ship. 

Squaring  Off.—Tht  trimming  off  of  the  projecting  edges  of 
the  strakes  after  vessel  is  planked. 

"'  Stanchions. — -Upright  pieces  of  wood  or  iron  placed  under 
deck  beams  to  support  them  in  the  center.     (Fig.  27.) 

Standards. — Knees  placed  against  the  fore-side  of  cable  or 
riding-bitts,  and  projecting  above  the  deck. 

Staples. — A  bent  fastening  of  metal  formed  as  a  loop,  and 
driven  in  at  both  ends. 

Start-Hammer. — A  steel  bolt,  with  a  handle  attached,  which 
is  held  on  the  heads  of  bolts,  and  struck  with  a  double-header 
to  start  them  in  below  the  surface. 

Stealer.— A  name  given  to  plank  that  fall  short  of  the 
stem  or  stern-post,  on  account  of  the  amount  of  sny  given  some- 
times in  planking  full-bowed  ships. 

*Stem. — The  main  timber  at  the  fore  part  of  ship,  formed  by 
the  combination  of  several  pieces  into  a  curved  shape  and 
erected  vertically  to  receive  the  ends  of  bow-planks,  which  are 
united  to  it  by  means  of  a  rabbet.  Its  lower  end  scarphs  or 
boxes  into  the  keel,  through  which  the  rabbet  is  also  carried,' 
and  the  bottom  unites  in  the  same  manner.     (Fig.  25.) 


210 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


*  Stemson.- — A  piece  of  timber,  wrought  on  after  part  of 
apron,  the  lower  end  of  which  scarphs  into  the  keelson.  Its 
upper  end  is  continued  as  high  as  the  middle  or  upper  deck, 
and  its  use  is  to  strengthen  the  scarphs  of  apron,  and  stem. 
(Fig.  25.) 

Step. — One  of  the  gradients  in  a  stair;  it  is  composed  of  two 
fronts,  one  horizontal,  called  the  tread,  and  one  vertical,  called  the 
riser. 

Steps  for  the  Ship's  Side.—The  pieces  of  quartering,  with 
mouldings,  nailed  to  the  sides  amidship,  about  nine  inches  asun- 
der, from  the  wales  upward,  for  the  convenience  of  persons 
getting  on  board. 

*  Steps  of  Masts. — The  steps  into  which  the  heels  of  masts 
are  fixed  are  large  pieces  of  timber.  Those  for  the  main  and 
foremasts  are  fixed  across  the  keelson,  and  that  for  the  mizzen- 
mast  upon  the  lower  deck-beams.  The  holes  or  mortises  into 
which  the  masts  step  should  have  sufficient  wood  on  each  side 
to  accord  in  strength  with  the  tenon  left  at  the  heel  of  mast, 
and  the  hole  should  be  cut  rather  less  than  the  tenon,  as  an 
allowance  for  shrinking.     (Fig.  25.) 

*  Stern  Frame. — The  strong  frame  of  timber  composed  of 
the  stern-post,  transoms  and  fashion-pieces,  which  form  the 
basis  of  the  whole  stern. 

*  Stern-Post. — The  principal  piece  of  timber  in  stern  frame 
on  which  the  rudder  is  hung,  and  to  which  the  transoms  arc- 
bolted.  It  therefore  terminates  the  ship  below  the  wing-tran- 
som, and  its  lower  end  is  tenoned  into  keel.     (Fig.  25.) 

Stiff. — Stable;  steady  under  canvas. 

Stiinng.— The  elevation  of  a  ship's  cathead  or  bowsprit,  or 
the  angle  which  either  makes  with  the  horizon;  generally  called 
steeve. 

Shoe,  Anchor.— A  flat  block  of  hard  wood,  convex  on  back, 
and  scored  out  on  flat  side  to  take  the  bill  of  anchor;  it  is  used 
in  fishing  the  anchor  to  prevent  tearing  the  plank  on  vessel's 
bow,  and  is  placed  under  the  bill  of  it,  and  is  hauled  up  with  it. 

*  Stoppings-Up. — The  poppets,  timber,  etc.,  used  to  fill  up  the 
vacancy  between  the  upper  side  of  the  bilgeways  and  ship's 
bottom,  for  supporting  her  when  launching. 

Straight  of  Breadth. — The  space  before  and  abaft  dead-flat, 
in  which  the  ship  is  of  the  same  uniform  breadth,  or  of  the 
same  breadth  as  at  dead-flat.     Sec  Dead-Flat. 

*  Strake.- — One  breadth  of  plank  wrought  from  one  end  of 
the  ship  to  the  other,  either  within  or  outboard. 

Strut. — Any  piece  of  timber  in  a  system  of  framing  which  is 
pressed  or  crushed  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 

Stub-Mortise. — A  mortise  which  does  not  pass  through  the 
whole  thickness  of  the  timber. 

Tabling. — Letting  one  piece  of  timber  into  another  by  al- 
ternate scores  or  projections  from  the  middle,  so  that  it  can- 
not be  drawn  asunder  either  lengthwise  or  sidewise. 

Taffarel  or  Taff-Rail.—Tht  upper  part  of  the  ship's  stern, 
usually  ornamented  with  carved  work  or  mouldings,  the  ends 
of  which  unite  to  the  quarter-pieces. 

Tasting  of  Plank  or  Timber. — Chipping  it  with  an  adze,  or 
boring  it  with  a  small  auger,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
its  quality  or  defects. 

Templet. — A  pattern  or  mould  used  by  masons,  machinists, 
smiths,  shipwrights,  etc.,  for  shaping  anything  by.  It  is  made 
of  tin  or  zinc  plate,  sheet-iron,  or  thin  board,  according  to  the 
use  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 

*  Tenon.— The  square  part  at  the  end  of  one  piece  of  timber, 
diminished  so  as  to  fix  in  a  hole  of  another  piece,  called  a 
mortise,  for  joining  or  fastening  the  two  pieces  together. 


Tenon. — The  end  of  a  piece  of  wood  cut  into  the  form  of  a 
rectangular  prism,  which  is  received  into  a  cavity  in  another 
piece,  having  the  same  shape  and  size,  called  a  mortise.    It  is 

sometimes  written  tenant. 

Thickstuff. — -A  name  for  sided  timber  exceeding  four  inches, 
l)ut  not  being  more  than  twelve  inches  in  thickness. 

Tholes,  or  Tholc-Pins. — The  battens  or  pins  forming  the 
rowlocks  of  a  boat. 

Throat. — The  inside  of  knee  at  the  middle  or  turn  of  the 
arms.     Also  the  midship  part  of  the  floor  timbers. 

Thwarts. — The  seats  in  a  boat  on  which  tJie  oarsmen  sit. 

Tiller. — An  arm  of  wood  or  iron  fitted  into  the  rudder- 
head  to  steer  a  ship  or  boat  by. 

Timber. — That  sort  of  wood  which  is  squared,  or  capable 
of  being  squared,  and  fit  for  being  employed  in  house  or  ship- 
building, or  in  carpentry,  joinery,  etc. 

Timber. —  {Material  for  ship-building.). — Timber  is  generally 
distinguished  into  rough,  square  or  hewn,  sided  and  converted 
timber.  Rough  timber  is  the  timber  to  its  full  size  as  felled, 
with  lop,  top  and  bark  off.  Hewn  timber  is  timber  squared  for 
measurement.  Sided  timber  is  the  tree  of  full  size,  one  way, 
as  it  is  felled,  but  with  slabs  taken  off  from  two  of  its  sides. 
Converted  timber  is  timber  cut  for  different  purposes. 

Timber-Heads. — Projecting  timbers  for  belaying  towing 
lines,  etc. 

To  Anchor  Stock. — To  work  planks  by  fashioning  them  in 
a  tapering  form  from  the  middle,  and  working  or  fixing  them 
over  each  other,  so  that  the  broad  or  middle  part  of  one  plank 
shall  be  immediately  above  or  below  the  butts  or  ends  of  two 
others.  This  method,  as  it  occasions  a  great  consumption  of 
wood,  is  only  used  where  particular  strength  is  required. 

Tonnage  of  Capacity. — The  capacity  which  the  body  has 
for  carrying  cargo,  estimated  at  100  cubic  feet  to  the  ton. 

Tonnage  of  Displacement. — The  weight  of  the  ship  in  tons 
with  all  on  board;  found  by  computing  number  of  cubic  feet 
of  the  immersed  body  to  the  deep  load  line  and  dividing  by 
35- 

*  Top  and  Half  Top-Timbers. — The  upper  timbers  of  the 
frame.     (Fig.  28.) 

Top-Rail. — An  iron  rail  at  the  after  part  of  ship's  tops. 

Top-Rim. — The  circular  sweep  or  the  fore-part  of  a  ves- 
sel's top  and  covering  in  the  ends  of  cross-trees  and  trestle- 
trees,  to  prevent  their  chafing  the  topsail. 

*  Topside. — That  part  of  the  ship  above  the  main  wales. 
(Fig.  28.) 

To  Teach. — A  term  applied  to  the  direction  that  any  line, 
etc.,  seems  to  point  out.  Thus  we_  say,  "Let  the  line  or  mould 
teach  fair  to  such  a  spot,  raze,"  etc. 

Trail-Boards.— The  filling  pieces,  sometimes  carved,  placed 
between  the  brackets  on  the  head. 

*  Transoms. — Transverse  timbers  in  square-sterned  ships, 
connected  and  placed  square  with  the  stern-posts. 

Tread. — The  horizontal  surface  of  a  step. 

Tread  of  the  Keel. — The  whole  length  of  the  keel  upon  a 
straight  line. 

Treenails. — Cylindrical  oak  pins  driven  through  the  planks 
and  timbers  of  a  vessel,  to  fasten  or  connect  them  together. 
These  certainly  make  the  best  fastening  when  driven  quite 
through,  and  caulked  or  wedged  inside.  They  should  be  made 
of  the  very  best  oak  or  locust,  cut  near  the  butt,  and  perfectly 
dry  or  well-seasoned. 

Trimming  of  Timber. — The  working  of  any  piece  of  timber 
.  into  the  proper  shape,  by  means  of  the  axe  or  adze. 


WOODEN      SHIP-BUILDING 


211 


Truss. — A  combination  of  timbers,  of  iron,  or  of  timbers  and 
iron-work  so  arranged  as  to  constitute  an  unyielding  frame.  It 
is  so  named  because  it  is  trussed  or  tied  together. 

Trussed  Beam. — A  compound  beam  composed  of  two  beams 
secured  together  side  by  side  with  a  truss,  generally  of  iron, 
between   them. 

The  Tuck.—Th.t  after  part  of  ship,  where  the  ends  of 
planks  of  bottom  are  terminated  by  the  tuck-rail,  and  all  below 
the  wing-transom  when  it  partakes  of  the  figure  of  the  wing- 
transom  as  far  as  the  fashion-pieces. 

Tuck-Rail. — The  rail  which  is  wrought  well  with  the  upper 
side  of  wing-transom,  and  forms  a  rabbet  for  the  purpose  of 
caulking  the  butt  ends  of  planks  of  bottom. 

Upright. — The  position  of  a  ship  when  she  inclines  neither 
to  one  side  nor  the  other. 

Veneer. — A  facing  of  superior  wood  placed  in  thin  leaves 
over  an  inferior  sort.  Generally,  a  facing  of  superior  material 
laid  over  an  inferior  material. 

*lVales  (by  some  also  called  Bends)  {Wooden  Vessels). — 
The  thickest  outside  planking  of  a  ship's  side,  about  midway 
between  the  light  water-line  and  the  plank  sheer;  the  breadth 
of  the  Wales  is  generally  equal  Xo  Y^  or  y^  of  the  depth  of  the 
vessel's  hold.     (Fig.  28.) 

Wall-Sided. — A  term  applied  to  the  topsides  of  the  ship  when 
the  main  breadth  is  continued  very  low  down  and  very  high  up, 
so  that  the  topsides  appear  straight  and  upright  like  a  wall. 

Washboards. — Thin  plank  placed  above  the  gunwale  of  a 
boat  forward  and  aft  to  increase  the  height. 

*  Water-Lines. — Sections  of  the  vessel  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  flotation. 

Water-logged. — The  condition  of  a  leaky  ship  when  she  is 
so  full  of  water  as  to  be  heavy  and  unmanageable. 

*  Waterways. — The  edge  of  the  deck  next  the  timbers,  which 
is  wrought  thicker  than  the  rest  of  deck,  and  so  hollowed  to 
thickness'  of  deck  as  to  form  a  gutter  or  channel  for  water  to 
run  through  to  the  scuppers.     (Fig.  26.) 


Wedges. — Slices  of  wood  driven  in  between  the  masts  and 
their  partners,  to  admit  of  giving  rake  if  desired. 


-The  brackets  or  projecting  parts  of  the  barrel  of 


Whelps.- 
a  capstan. 

Whole-Moulded. — A  term  applied  to  the  bodies  of  those 
ships  which-  are.,»o  constructed  that  one  mould  made  to  the 
midship-bend,  with  the  addition  of  a  floor  hollow,  will  mould 
all  the  timbers  below  the  main-breadth  in  square  body. 

Winch. — A  machine  similar  to  a  windlass,  but  much  smaller, 
often  placed  on  the  fore  side  of  the  lower  masts  of  merchant 
vessels,  just  above  the  deck,  to  assist  in  hoisting  the  topsails,  etc. 

Wind. — To  cast  or  warp ;  to  turn  or  twist  any  surface,  so 
that  all  its  parts  do  not  lie  in  the  same  plane. 

Windlass. — A  machine  used  in  vessels  for  hoisting  the 
anchor. 

Wings. — The  places  next  the  side  upon  the  orlop. 

Wing-Transom. — The  uppermost  transom  in  stern  frame, 
upon  which  the  heels  of  counter-timbers  are  let  in  and  rest. 
It  is  by  some  called  the  main-transom. 

Wood-Lock. — A  piece  of  elm  or  oak,  closely  fitted  and 
sheathed  with  copper,  in  the  throating  or  score  of  the  pintle, 
near  the  load  water-line,  so  that  when  the  rudder  is  hung  and 
wood-lock  nailed  in  its  place,  it  cannot  rise,  because  the  latter 
butts  against  the  under  side  of  the  brace  and  butt  of  score. 

Wrain-Bolt. — Ring-bolts  used  when  planking,  with  two  or 
more  forelock  holes  in  the  end  for  taking  in  the  set,  as  the  plank, 
etc.,  works  nearer  the  timbers. 

Wrain-Stave. — A  sort  of  stout  billet  of  tough  wood,  tapered 
at  the  ends  so  as  to  go  into  the  ring  of  the  wrain-bolt,  to  make 
the  setts  necessary  for  bringing-to  the  planks  or  thickstuflf  to 
the  timbers. 

Yacht.— JK  small  vessel  (sailing  or  power-driven  vessel)  used 
for  pleasure. 


212 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


USEFUL  TABLES 

FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH  IN  DECIMALS 


Fraction 

;)ecimal 

Fraction 

Decimal 

Fraction 

Decimal 

Fraction 

Decimal 

of  an 

of  an 

of  an 

of  an 

of  an 

of  an 

of  an 

of  an 

Inch 

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Inch 

Inch 

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Inch 

J6 

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'% 

26562 

^^ 

51562 

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.76562 

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03125 

% 

28125 

'% 

53125 

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.78125 

% 

04687 

'% 

29687 

'Hi 

54687 

'Hi 

.79687 

Hi 

06250 

Hi 

31250 

% 

56250 

'^6 

.81250 

% 

07812 

'Hi 

32812 

'% 

57812 

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.82812 

% 

09375 

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34375 

'% 

59375 

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•84375 

% 

10937 

""Hi 

35937 

'Hi 

60937 

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H 

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62500 

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15625 

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% 

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2% 

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,¥' 

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43750 

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68750 

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% 

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46875 

"^ 

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•96875 

'56 

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K 

25000 

H 

50000 

H 

75000 

I  inch 

I .00000 

INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  IN  DECIMALS  OF  A  FOOT 

Parts  of 

Parts  of 

Parts  of 

Parts  of 

Foot  in 

Decimal 

Foot  in       1 

Decimal 

Foot  in 

Decimal 

Foot  in 

Decimal 

Inches  and 

of  a  Foot 

Inches  and    0 

f  a  Foot 

Inches  and    0 

f  a  Foot 

Inches  and 

of  a  Foot 

Fractions 

Fractions 

Fractions 

Fractions 

Hi 

.00520 

3 'Hi 

25520 

6 'Hi 

■50520 

9  Hi 

•75520 

A 

.01040 

3  A 

26040 

6  A 

51040 

9  A 

.76040 

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.01562 

3% 

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6 'Hi 

51562 

9 'Hi 

.76562 

K 

.02080 

3  A 

27080 

6  A 

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.77080 

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.02600 

3 'Hi 

27600 

6 'Hi 

52600 

9 'Hi 

.77600 

H 

.03125 

3  H 

28125 

6  A 

53125 

9  A 

.78125 

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.03640 

3  Hi 

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(■Hi 

53640 

9  Hi 

•78650 

K 

.04170 

3  A 

29170 

6  A 

54170 

9  A 

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.04687 

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6  Hi 

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9  Hi 

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H 

.05210 

3  A. 

30210 

6  ^ 

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9  ^ 

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9"Hi 

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.06250 

3  A 

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6H 

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9  A 

.81250 

.  "Hi 

.06770 

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.07290 

3A- 

32290 

6  7A 

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9  A 

.82290 

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.07812 

3"Hi 

32812 

6>5.1'6 

57812 

9"Hi 

.82812 

I  inch 

.08330 

4  inches 

33330 

7  inches 

58330 

10  inches 

•83330 

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.08850 

A 'Hi 

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7 'Hi 

58850 

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.83850 

I  'A 

•09375 

4  A 

34375 

7  A 

59375 

10  A 

•84375 

I 'Hi 

.09900 

A 'Hi 

34900 

7 'Hi 

S9900 

10% 

.84900 

I  % 

. 10420 

A  A 

35420 

7  A 

60420 

10  A 

.85420 

I 'Hi 

•  10937 

A 'Hi 

35937 

7 'Hi 

60937 

10  Hi 

•85937 

I  H 

.11460 

A  H 

36460 

7  H 

61460 

10  A 

.86460 

I  Hi 

.11980 

A  Hi 

36980 

7  Hi 

61980 

10  Hi 

.86980 

I  'A 

.12500 

A  A 

37500 

7  A 

62500 

10  A 

.87500 

1% 

.13020 

A  Hi 

38020 

7  Hi 

63020 

10  Hi 

.88020 

I  H 

•13540 

A. A 

38540 

7H 

63540 

10  H 

.88540 

i"Hi 

. 14062 

A"Hi 

39062 

7"Hi 

64062 

lo^'Hi 

. 89062 

I  H 

•  14580 

aH 

39580 

7  A 

64580 

10  A 

.89580 

i"Hi 

,15100 

A"Hi 

40100 

7"Hi 

65100 

10% 

.90100 

I  H 

•15625 

A  A 

40625 

7  A 

65625 

10  7A 

•90625 

i"Hi 

.16150 

A"y{i 

41140 

7"Hi 

66150 

10% 

.91150 

2  inches 

.16670 

5  inches 

41670 

8  inches 

66670 

II  inches 

.91670 

2 'Hi 

.17187 

5 'Hi 

42187 

8'Hit 

67187 

II  'Hi 

.92187 

2  A 

.17710 

5A      . 

42710 

8Ai 

67710 

II  A 

.92710 

2 'Hi 

.18230 

5 'Hi 

43230 

sHi 

68230 

11% 

.93230 

2% 

•18750 

5A 

43750 

8A 

68750 

II  A 

•93750 

2 'Hi 

.19270 

5 'Hi 

44270 

s'Hi 

69270 

I J 'Hi 

.94270 

2  H    ■ 

.19790 

5H 

44790 

8  A' 

69790 

II  'As 

•94790 

2  Hi 

.20312 

5  Hi 

45312 

SHi  ■ 

70312 

11  Hi 

•95312 

2  A 

.20830 

5A 

45830 

8  A 

70830 

II  A 

•95830 

2  Hi 

.21350 

5  Hi 

46350 

8% 

71350 

11% 

•96350 

2H 

•21875 

5H 

46875 

SHY 

71875 

II  H 

•96875 

2"Hi 

. 22400 

5"Hi 

47400 

8% 

72400 

ii"Hi 

.97400 

2V4 

.22920 

5A 

47920 

8  A 

72920 

II  A 

.97920 

2"Hi 

•23437 

5"Hi 

48437 

8% 

73437 

ii"Hi 

•98437 

2    7yi 

•23950 

5A 

48960 

8    7yi 

73960 

II    7A 

.98960 

2"Hi 

.24480 

5"Hi 

49480 

8%        • 

74480 

ii"Hi 

.99480 

3  inches 

.25000 

6  inches 

50000 

9  inches 

75000 

12  inches 

I .00000 

WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


213 


AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference 

Diameter 

Area 

Circumference 

I 

•7854 

3-I416 

51 

2042.8206 

160.2212 

2 

3-1416 

6.2832 

52 

2123. 7166 

163.3628 

3 

7.0686 

9.4248 

53 

2206.1834 

166.5044 

4 

12.5664 

12.5664 

54 

2290.2210 

169.6460 

5 

19-6350 

15.7080 

55 

2375-8294 

172.7876 

6 

28.2743 

18.8496 

56 

2463.0086 

175.9292 

7 

38.4845 

21. 991 1 

57 

2551-7586 

179.0708 

8 

50-2655 

25-1327 

58 

2642.0794 

182.2184 

9 

63.6173 

28.2743 

59 

2733-9710 

185-3540 

10 

78.5398 

31-4159 

60 

2827.4334 

188.4956 

II 

95-0332 

34-5575 

61 

2922.4666 

191.6372 

12 

113-0973 

37.6991 

62 

3019.0705 

194-7787 

13 

132-7323 

40.8407 

63 

31 17-2453 

197.9203 

14 

153-9380 

43-9823 

64 

3216.9909 

201.0619 

15 

176.7146 

47.1239 

65 

3318.3072 

204.2035 

16 

201.0619 

50.2655 

66 

342 1. 1 944 

207.3451 

17 

226.9801 

53-4071 

67 

3525.6524 

210.4867 

18 

254.4690 

56-5487 

68 

3631. 681 1 

213.6283 

19 

283.5287 

596903 

69 

3739.2807 

216.7699 

20 

314-1593 

62.8319 

70 

3848.4510 

219.9I15 

21 

346.3606 

65-9734 

71 

3959-I921 

223.0531 

22 

380.1327 

69.1150 

72 

407 1. 504 1 

226.1947 

23 

415-4756 

72.2566 

73 

4185-3868 

229.3363 

24 

452-3893 

75-3982 

74 

4300.8403 

232.4779 

25 

490.8739 

78-5398 

75 

4417.8647 

235-6194 

26 

530.9292 

81.6814 

76 

4536.4598 

238.7610 

27 

572.5553 

84.8230 

77 

4656.6257 

241.9026 

28 

615-7522 

87.9646 

78 

4778.3624 

245.0442 

29 

660.5199 

91.1062 

79 

4901 .6699 

248.1858 

30 

706.8583 

94-2478 

80 

5026.5482 

251-3274 

31 

754-7676 

973894 

81 

5152.9974 

254.4690 

32 

804.2477 

100.5310 

82 

5281.OI73 

257.6106 

33 

855-2986 

103.6726 

83 

5410.6079 

260.7522 

34 

907.9203 

106.8142 

84 

5541.7694 

263.8938 

35 

962.1128 

109-9557 

85 

5674-5017 

267.0354 

36 

IOI7.8760 

113.0973 

86 

5808.8048 

270.1770 

37 

IO75.210I 

116.2389 

87 

5944-6787 

273-3186 

38 

II34.II49 

119.3805 

88 

6082.1234 

276.4602 

39 

1 194.5906 

122.5221 

89 

6221. 1389 

279.6017 

40 

1 256. 637 1 

125.6637 

90 

6361. 7251 

282.7434 

41 

1320.2543 

128.8053 

91 

6503.8822 

285.8849 

42 

1385.4424 

131.9469 

92 

6647. 610I 

289.0265 

43 

1452. 2012 

135-0835 

93 

6792.9097 

292.1681 

44 

1520.5308 

138.2301 

94 

6939.7782 

295-3097 

45 

I59O.43I3 

141-3717 

95 

7088.2184 

298-4513 

46 

I66I.9025 

144-5133 

96 

7238.2295 

301.5929 

47 

1734-9445 

147-6549 

97 

7389-81 13 

304-7345 

48 

1809.5574 

150.7964 

98 

7542.9610 

307.8761 

49 

1885. 7410 

153-9380 

99 

7697.6874 

31I.OI77 

50 

1963.4954 

157.0796 

100 

7853-9816 

314-1593 

WEIGHT  OF  A  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  CAST  AND  WROUGHT  IRON, 

COPPER,  LEAD,  BRASS  AND  ZINC 

FROM  He  TO  i   INCH   IN  THICKNESS 


Wrouglit 

Tliickness 

Cast  Iron 

Iron 

Copper 

Lead 

Brass 

Zinc 

Inch 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Hi 

2.346 

2-517 

2.89 

3.691 

2.675 

2-34 

'A 

4-693 

5-035 

5-781 

7.382 

5-35 

4.68 

%, 

7-039 

7-552 

8.672 

11.074 

8-025 

7.02 

K 

9-386 

10.07 

1 1 .562 

14-765 

10.7 

9-36 

% 

11-733 

12.588 

14-453 

18.456 

13-375 

II.7 

H 

14.079 

15.106 

17-344 

22.148 

16.05 

14.04 

% 

16.426 

17-623 

20.234 

25-839 

18.725 

16.34 

"6 

18.773 

20.141 

23-125 

29-53 

21.4 

18.72 

% 

21. 119 

22.659 

26.016 

33.222 

24-075 

'tl 

23.466 

25.176 

28.906 

36.923 

26.75 

25-812 

27-694 

31-797 

40.604 

29-425 

.H 

28.159 

30.211 

34.688 

44-296 

32-1 

% 

30.505 

32.729 

37-578 

47-987 

,'{f 

32-852 

35-247 

40.469 

51-678 

"^ 

35-199 

37-764 

43-359 

55-37 

I 

37-545 

40.282 

46.25 

59.061 

NOTE.- 
plates. 


-The  wrought  iron  and  the  copper  weights  are  those  of  hard-rolled 


214 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


FRESH  WATER 
UNITED  STATES  GALLON 
Tons  =  gallons  Tons  =  cubic  feet 

268.365  35.883 

Pounds  =  cubic  feet  X  62.425 
Gallons  =  cubic  feet  X  7.48 
Pressure  =  height  in  feet  X  -4335 
Height  in  feet  =  pressure  X  2.3093 

Logarithm 

I  ton  contains  35.883  cubic  feet 1.55489 

I  ton  contains  268.365  gallons 2.56628 

I  ton  weighs  2240  pounds 3-35025 

I  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches 2.36361 

1  gallon  contains  .833  imperial  gallon 2.92065 

I  gallon  weighs  8.33  pounds j. 92065 

I  quart  weighs  2.08  pounds 31806 

I  ^int  weighs  i  .04  pounds 01703 

I  gill  weighs  .26  pound 9.41497 

I  cubic  foot  weighs  62.425  pounds 1 .79536 

I  cubic  foot  contains  7.48  gallons 87390 

I  cubic  foot  contains  1728  cubic  inches 3-23754 

I  cubic  inch  weighs  .036125  pound 8.55781 

12  cubic  inches  weighs  .4335  pound 9.63699 

27.71  cubic  inches  weighs  i  pound 

27.71  cubic  inches,  height  2.3093  feet 36348 


METRIC  CONVERSION  TABLE 


Inches 

Millimeters 

Inches 

Millimeters 

Inches 

Millimeters 

Mii 

1-59 

2% 

58.74 

6 

152.40 

}i 

3-17 

iH 

60.33 

6^ 

158-75 

% 

4.76 

2^6 

61.91 

6  K 

165.10 

K 

6-35 

2K 

63-50 

6K 

171-45 

% 

7-94 

2% 

65-09 

7 

177.80 

H 

9-53 

2fg 

66.67 

IV, 

184.15 

Ki 

11.10 

2'K6 

68.26 

TA 

190.50 

'A 

12.70 

2% 

69.85 

7K 

196.85 

% 

14.29 

2% 

71-44 

8 

203.20 

^ 

15-87 

21A 

73-03 

^'A 

209.55 

't^ 

17.46 

2% 

74.61 

8  A 

215-90 

K 

19-05 

3 

76.20 

8K 

222.25 

'Ke 

20.64 

33^ 

79-37 

9 

228.60 

n 

22.23 

3X 

82.55 

9X 

234-95 

'K6      " 

23.81 

3^ 

85-73 

9  A 

241.30 

I 

25.40 

iA 

88.90 

9  Y^ 

247-65 

I  Ke 

26.99 

ZH 

92.08 

10 

254-00 

I  yi 

28.57 

3K 

95-25 

10  A 

260.35 

1% 

30.16 

3^ 

98.43 

10  K 

266.70 

I  X 

31-75 

4 

101.60 

10  K 

273-05 

1^6 

33-34 

4  J^ 

104.78 

II 

279.40 

I  H 

34-92 

4X 

107.95 

II  A 

285.75 

l'/<6 

36.51 

4N 

III. 13 

II  K 

292.10 

I    A 

38.10 

454 

114.30 

II  K 

298.45 

1% 

39-68 

^H 

117.48 

12 

304-80 

Mfe 

41.27 

4^ 

120.65 

13 

330.20 

42.86 

4>i 

123-83 

14 

355-60 

i^ 

44-44 

5 

127.00 

15 

381.00 

1% 

46.03 

5>^ 

130.18 

16 

406.40 

I  yk 

47-62 

5K 

133-35 

17 

431.80 

i'% 

49-21 

5  H 

136-53 

18 

457.20 

2 

50.80 

5K 

139-70 

19 

482 .60 

2  Hi 

52.39 

5^ 

142.88 

20 

508.00 

2  yi 

53-97 

5K 

146.05 

2% 

55-56 

5^ 

147-25 

39-3708 

I.  Meter 

2>^ 

,56.15 

I        Kilogramme  = 

50,8    Kilogrammes  = 

100       Kilogrammes  = 

1000       Kilogrammes  = 

1016,06  Kilogrammes 


2.2046  Lb. 
I  Cwt. 
1 ,96  Cwts. 
19,68  Cwts. 
I  Ton. 


i.o  Cubic  Meter  =  35,317  Cubic  Feet 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


215 


WEIGHTS  OF  ENGINES  IN  POUNDS  PER  H.P.  FOR 
VARIOUS  VESSELS 


Comp 


Compound 


Triple 


Quadruple 


Steam  Launches 

Small  Cargo  Steamers 

Torpedo  Boats 

Small  Cruisers 

Large  Cruisers 

Cargo  Steamers 

Cargo  Steamers 

Passenger  Steamers. . . 


17-33 
132-187 


5-36 

36-70 

57-110 

143-210 

92-143 


154-242 
1 10-176 


WEIGHTS  OF  SINGLE  PARTS  OF  ENGINES 


Designation  of  Parts 


Cylinders  and  Valve  Boxes 

Cylinder  Cover  and  Other  Joints 

Covers  and  Faces  of  Valve  Chests 

Stuffing  Boxes,  Safety  Valves 

Screw  Bolts 

Foundations,  Col's,  Bearings  with  Guides. 

Thrust  Blocks,  Complete 

Pistons 

Piston  Rods 

Crossheads 

Connecting  Rods 

Valves 

Valve  Rods  and  Eccentrics 

Reversing  Gear,  including  Reversing  Shaft 

Crank  Shaft  and  Shafting 

Condenser 

Driven  Air  Pump 

Driven  Circulating  Pump 


WEIGHTS  OF  STATIONARY  AND  MOVING  PARTS  OF 
MARINE  ENGINES 


Condenser, 

Moving 

Fixed 

Pumps,  Piping, 

Total 

I.  H.  P. 

Parts 

Parts 

IncludingWater 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

I 

520 

31.2 

59-6 

9.6 

100.4 

2 

1040 

233 

49-5 

1-9 

74-7 

3 

1200 

60.5 

99  0 

5-8 

1653 

4 

1470 

lOI  .0 

1450 

10.2 

256.2 

5 

1670 

88.0 

1430 

4.8 

235-8 

6 

1880 

44  0 

74.1 

5-4 

1235 

7 

1880 

53-6 

107.6 

7-3 

168.5 

8 

2000 

72.2 

loi  .0 

51-8 

225.0 

9 

2100 

78.5 

118. 0 

36.1 

232.6 

10 

2500 

72.6 

114. 0 

7.8 

194.4 

II 

6600 

66.5 

88.0 

28.8 

183.3 

12 

2000 

67.9 

68.0 

21.7 

157-6 

NOTE, — Since  the  weights  will  vary  with  the  design,  the  above  values  can 
only  be  used  as  an  estimate  and  their  limitations  appreciated.  Weights  are 
from  actual  calculations  and  checked  by  scale  weights. 


2id 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 


w 

CL, 
>- 

K 
U 
■H 
O 
U 

T 

m 

BJ 
U 
J 

o 

CQ 

U 

2 

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< 

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H 

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suox  l«?ox 


suox  'JajBAV 


suox  '-i^noa 


suox  [«?ox 


suox  *-I3;b,w 


suox  'J^nog 


3U1JB3H  IBIOX 


3 33 J  diBnbs 
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N  N  N  NClNPjcitrj  NPOPorofOPOfOfOf*5POfO 


jaquinisj 


sj3qujEq3 
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es3U3(o;i[x 


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o  o  o  o  o  o  o^  o  o  o  o  oSSSSSS  = 


WOODEN     SHIP-BUILDING 

PARTICULARS  OF  VESSELS  OF  NAMED  DIMENSIONS  AND  TYPE.S 


217 


Elements 


T.S.S. 

s.  s.  s. 

s.  s.  s. 

s.  s.  s. 

s.s.s. 

s.  s.  s. 

S.S.S. 

S.  S.  S. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

T.S.S. 

T.S.S. 

120.0 

200.0 

330.0 

250.0 

255  0 

310.0 

319.0 

320.0 

392-0 

420.0 

460.0 

469.0 

21.0 

30.0 

41 .0 

32.0 

34-5 

370 

340 

40.0 

39-0 

48.0 

52  0 

56.0 

7.10 

12  .1 

24.4 

12.6 

9.2 

17-3 

17.8 

18.33 

21-3 

18.8 

26.7 

24-5 

282 

1285 

6880 

1740 

1420 

3600 

3445 

4720 

5767 

8160 

13080 

13895 

150 

324 

925 

355 

285 

590 

526 

664 

738 

828 

1322 

1315 

4508 

8628 

25210 

1 1 184 

10164 

18099 

19245 

21 102 

26235 

31196 

42423 

43389 

54 

61 

70 

79 

80 

96 

90 

71 

118 

75 

no 

99 

■  550 

■695 

.788 

.684 

.700 

.690 

.712 

.771 

.698 

.821 

-753 

.789 

9.20 

10.8 

10.5 

11.94 

II-3 

11.97 

"■59 

11.79 

12.05 

II. 8 

12.05 

12.0 

192 

661 

1372 

962 

816 

1655 

1 194 

1788 

1758 

2086 

3382 

3780 

174 

228 

305 

255 

223 

244 

297 

258 

320 

276 

276 

264 

608 

617 

780 

627 

504 

613 

686 

670 

735 

560 

690 

607 

0.680 

0.514 

0.200 

0.553 

0.574 

0.534 

0-347 

0-375 

0-305 

0.255 

0.256 

0.272 

s.  s.  s. 


Length  Between  Perpendiculars 

Beam  Extreme 

Draught,  Mean 

Displacement,  Tons 

Area  Midship  Section,  Square  Feet 

Wetted  Surface,  Square  Feet 

Length  of  Fore  Body,  Feet 

Prismatic  Coefficient 

Speed  in  Knots  per  Hour 

Indicated  Horse  Power 

Admiralty  Constant 

Midship  Section  Constant 

L  H.  P. -^ Displacement.  '. 


426.0 

54-25 

24.0 

1 1 556 
1250 

37798 

102.5 
.760 

12.51 

3305 

303 

744 

0.286 


Elements 


Naval 

Naval 

Naval 

T.S.S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T  S.S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T.S.S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T.S.S. 

T.S.S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T.S.S. 

300.0 

302.0 

3"-5 

270.0 

290.0 

470.0 

685.0 

200.0 

210.0 

300.0 

34-5 

38.0 

36.0 

34-0 

38.0 

58.0 

68.0 

19-5 

20.5 

36.5 

13-78 

13-5 

"-5 

10.5 

11.92 

20.5 

29.91 

5-5 

5-67 

13-9 

2200 

2400 

1780 

1350 

2100 

9650 

25910 

263 

320 

2235 

425 

460 

392 

3" 

416 

1 100 

1922 

77 

91 

445 

14043 

14472 

12628 

10253 

I317O 

35912 

72208 

3890 

4323 

14083 

129 

"9-4 

152-5 

118. 0 

"3-3 

163 

213 

80 

87.0 

124 

.603 

.604 

-514 

-563 

.609 

-653 

.690 

.600 

.586 

.586 

18.20 

18.57 

18.70 

19-3 

20.34 

20.2 

20.8 

27-6 

30-5 

20.8 

4398 

5241 

4000 

3750 

5820 

16200 

26500 

3628 

6017 

7275 

246 

219 

240 

207 

236 

230 

297 

237 

220 

212 

556 

563 

641 

596 

599 

560 

652 

419 

428 

551 

2  .00 

2.18 

2.25 

2.78 

2.77 

1.68 

1.02 

13-8 

18.3 

3.26 

Naval 
T.  S.  S. 


Length  Between  Perpendiculars 

Beam  Extreme 

Draught,  Mean 

Displacement,  Tons 

Area  Midship  Section,  Square  Feet 
Wetted  Surface,  Square  Feet. . . .  . . 

Length  of  Forebody,  Feet 

Prismatic  Coefficient 

Speed  in  Knots  per  Hour 

Indicated  Horse  Power 

Admiralty  CoYistant 

Midship  Section  Constant 

I .  H .  P.  -^  Displacement 


360.0 

60.0 

20.6 

6100 

1059 

25545 

158 

-561 

20.96 

10646 

288 

915 

1-74 


Elements 


S.  S.  s. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

T.S.S. 

S.  S.  S. 

T.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

T.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

T.S.S. 

300.0 

402.0 

380.0 

550.0 

460.0 

204.0 

240.0 

420.0 

340.0 

400.0 

425.0 

530.0 

42.0 

43-0 

43-0 

63-0 

So.o 

34-0 

32.0 

50.0 

41.0 

45-2 

51-0 

59-0 

II. 2 

18.51 

18.6 

29-9? 

2ib.7 

10-33 

15-4 

21. 1 

17.0 

18.6 

23.2 

23-5 

2502 

5670 

5685 

22589 

12720 

1080 

2040 

9070 

4120 

5842 

9950 

14206 

401 

700 

712 

1779 

J270 

300 

450 

980 

620 

747 

1 126 

1225 

14683 

25694 

24956 

6009a  , 

41058 

7929 

12022 

33065 

20128 

26063 

36448 

46391 

81.4 

"8.5 

100 

106 

no 

78 

81.3 

96 

107.4 

126.3 

116 

124 

-729 

.708 

-737 

.809 

.761 

.617 

.661 

-771 

.684 

.684 

.767 

-765 

12.23 

12.28 

12.4 

12.75 

12.95 

13.20 

13-23 

13-90 

14-36 

14-79 

14.8 

14-7 

15" 

2101 

2329 

4790 

3950 

1018 

1,584 

3908 

2884 

3742 

4512 

6118 

223 

279 

260 

345 

299 

240 

235 

306 

262 

280 

299 

305 

484 

616 

.581 

768 

698 

685 

658 

670 

633 

645 

648 

637 

0.604 

0-371 

0.410 

0.213 

0.310 

0.942 

0.776 

0.430 

0.700 

0-645 

0.452 

0.430 

S.S.S. 


Length  Between  Perpendiculars 

Beam  Extreme 

Draught,  Mean 

Displacement,  Tons 

Area  Midship  Section,  Square  Feet 

Wetted  Surface,  Square  Feet 

Length  of  Fore  Body,  Feet 

Prismatic  Coefficient 

Speed  in  Knots  per  Hour 

Indicated  Horse  Power 

Admiralty  Constant 

Midship  Section  Constant 

I.  H.  P. -7- Displacement 


300.0 
38.0 
13  - 10 
2506 

453 

14596 

107 

-643 

15-33 

2602 

255 
629 
1.04 


Elements 


T.  S.  S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T.  S.  S. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

T.  S.  S. 

S.S.S. 

S.S.S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T.  S.  S. 

T.  S.  S. 

280.0 

290.0 

300.0 

315-5 

420.0 

450.0 

220.0 

388.0 

466.0 

600.0 

680.0 

570.0 

31.0 

38.0 

34-5 

33-5 

43-0 

45-17 

28.0 

43-0 

52.0 

65.0 

75 -o 

64.0 

13-4 

II  .92 

13-78 

15-0 

18.4 

23.6 

9.0 

17.6 

20.1 

30.01 

30.0 

27-5 

1940 

2100 

2200 

2480 

5906 

8500 

736 

4315 

8124 

23630 

30020 

19150 

350 

416 

425 

422 

698 

926 

204 

615 

980 

181O 

2094 

1629 

12582 

13170 

14043 

15200 

26699 

32578 

6841 

22330 

285II 

63977 

76440 

56195 

86 

"3-3 

129.0 

107-5 

124 

129 

94 

142 

176 

143 

178 

168 

-693 

.609 

.603 

.658 

•705 

•714 

•573 

.632 

.622 

.762 

•738 

-723 

15  03 

15-00 

15-34 

15-34 

1510 

15-05 

16.50 

16.82 

16.52 

16.01 

16.20 

17-25 

2373 

2157 

2358 

2243 

4437 

4900 

1405 

4660 

6347 

10508 

12491 

11035 

223 

257 

259 

295 

253 

289 

261 

269 

287 

321 

329 

332 

501 

650 

650 

678 

543 

642 

654 

626 

696 

707 

712 

760 

1.22 

1.03 

1.07 

0.90 

0.75 

0.58 

1.90 

1.08 

0.78 

0-44 

0.42 

0.57 

T.  S.  S. 


Length  Between  Perpendiculars 

Beam  Extreme 

Draught,  Mean 

Displacement,  Tons 

Area  Midship  Section,  Square  Feet.. 

Wetted  Surface,  Square  Feet 

Length  of  Forebody,  Feet 

Prismatic  Coefficient 

Speed  in  Knots  per  Hour 

Indicated  Horse  Power 

Admiralty  Constant 

Midship  Section,  Constant 

I.  H.  P. -T- Displacement 


269.0 

33-0 

8.75 

1237 

266 

9678 

106.3 

-605 

18.9 

3231 
246 
556 
2.61 


Thetis,    a   Sea-Nymph— Wooden   Figurehead 


Paragraph  Reference  Index 


CHAPTER  SUBJECT  PAR. 

I.— CLASSIFICATION  AND  INSURANCE. 

Insurance  explained 'a- 

II.— KNOWLEDGE  OF  WOODS. 

Cultivation  of  trees 2a 

Timber  for  Ship  building 2b 

Care  of  timber  2c 

Bending  timber   2d 

Seasoning  timber 2e 

Loss  of  weight  and  shrinkage   2f 

Hard  woods  (description)    2g 

Soft  and  resinous  woods   2h 

III.— KINDS  AND   DIMENSIONS   OF   MA- 
TERIAL TO  USE. 

Explanation  of  tables  3   3a 

Dimensions  of  materials 3b 

Lloyd's  rules  and  material  tables 3c 

Tables  of  Material  to  use   3C 

IV.— TONNAGE. 

Tonnage  explained  

Builder's  Tonnage  explained 

ross  

Registered      "  "  

Panama  and  Suez  Tonnage 

Light  Displacement  

Heavy  Displacement  

Dead  Weight   

Light  Displacement  W.L 

Freeboard  mark 

Displacement  curve  and  Deadweight  scale. 
Volume  of  Internal  Body  or  Room  in  a  Ship 

v.— STRAINS  EXPERIENCED  BY  SHIPS. 

Longitudinal  strains  in  still  water   

Hogging  strains  explained   

Sagging         "  ".      . 

Curves  of  buoyancy  distribution   

"         "    weight    

"         "    loads    

Longitudinal  strains  among  waves  

Transverse  strains  when  afloat  

Local  strains 

•    Strains  due  to  propulsion  of  sail  or  steam. . 

VI.— ESTIMATING  AND  CONVERTING. 

Bills  of  material 

Selecting  material  required  for  construction 

of  a  ship    

Converting    

VII.— JOINTS  AND  SCARPHS. 

Joints  that  form  an  angle   

Scarphs    

Dovetailing  halving   

Coaks    


PACE 


6a 


VIII.— DESCRIBING  THE  DIFFERENT 
PARTS  OF  A  SHIP  CONSTRUC- 
TED OF  WOOD. 

Explanatory    

Keel — Description     

Materials  for  Keel   ; 

Scarphing  Keels   

Explanation  of  coaked  keel  scarphs   

Fastening  scarphs  of  keel 

Stopwaters  in  keel  scarphs    

Keel   rabbet    

Edgebolting  keel  

False  keel  or  shoe  

Stem  

Apron  


8a 

8b 

8bi 

8b2 

8b3 

8b« 

8b= 

8b8 

8b^ 

8b8 

8c 

8d 


9 
10 
12 
13 
14 
16 


19 
19 
20 

24 


4a 

25 

4b 

25 

4C 

2.S 

4d 

26 

46 

27 

4f 

28 

4K 

28 

4h 

28 

41 

28 

4J 

29 

4k 

29 

4I 

29 

.Sa 

30 

.Sb 

31 

■Sc 

31 

.Sd 

32 

Se 

32 

5t 

33 

.SK 

33 

5h 

34 

51 

35 

5J 

35 

36 


6b 

36 

6c 

37 

7a 

39 

7b 

40 

7c 

42 

7d 

42 

44 
45 
45 
46 
47 
47 
47 
48 
48 
49 
49 
49 


SUBJECT 


Knightheads    

Forward  deadwood    

Stern  post   

After   deadwood    

Counter  timbers    

Frame     

Floor   

Frame  timbers   

Filling  frames 

Cant  frames   

Hawse  pieces   

Main  keelson    

Sister  keelson    

Boiler  or  bilge  keelson   

Rider  keelsons    

Stemson     

Sternson     

Diagonal  steel  bracing  of  frames   . 

Planking     

Garboard    

Sheer    

Wales    

Caulking    

Ceiling    

Fastening  planking 

The  clamps   

Air  course   

The  Shelf   

Shelf  fastenings    

Deck    Beams    

Fastening  knees  and  deck  beams   . 

Framing  of  deck   

Framing  a  hatchway   

Framing  a  mast  partner   

Framing  decks  at  stem  and  stern 
Framing  decks  under  winches   . .  .  . 

Water  ways    

Lock  and  thick  strakes    

Decking    


PAR. 

8e 

8f 

8g 

8h 

8i 

8k 

8ki 

8k2 

8k3 

8k* 

81 

8m 

8ml 

8m2 

8m3 

8n 

80 

8p 

8q 

8qi 

8q2 

8q8 

8q* 

8q=' 

8q8 

8r 

8ri 

8s 

8si 

8t 

8ti 

8t2 

8t3 

8t* 

8t5 

8t« 

8u 

8ui 

8u2 


IX— BUILDING     SLIPS     AND     LAUNCH- 
ING WAYS. 

Slips    and    ways    9a 

Inclination  of  slip 9b 

Information  about  piles   9c 

Length  and  width  of  slips  9d 

Inclination  of  blocking  9e 

Keel   blocking    ■ 9* 

Launching  apparatus 9g 

Breadth  of  surface  of  ways 9" 

Distance  ways  are  apart   9f 

Description  of  cradle    9J 

Concluding  remarks    9k 

Broadside  launching   9I 

X.— BUILDING  A  SHIP. 

Explanatory    'oa 

Plans  and  Specifications lob 

Management  and  Supervision    loc 

Actual   Construction   Work    lod 

Keel   Blocks    loe 

Keel     lof 

Getting  out  Frames   log 

Stem,  Apron  and  Deadwood    loh 

Stem-Post  and  Deadwood   loi 

Keelson    Construction lOJ 

Steel  Shaping  of  frames    lok 

Planking     lO' 

Laying  a  garboard   1°}^ 

Sheer  strake  and  Wales   lol- 

Fastenings  of  Planking loj' 

Double  planking   (fore  and  aft)    lol* 

Double    diagonal    and    single    fore    and    aft 

planking  lol' 


PAGE 

50 
50 

SI 

51 
51 
52 

53 
53 
S3 
54 
55 
55 
55 
56 
56 
S6 
56 
56 
56 
56 
57 
57 
57 
58 
S8 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
61 
62 
62 
63 
63 
63 
64 
64 
64 


66 
66 
68 
69 
70 
71 
71 
73 
73 
74 
77 
79 


80 
81 
86 
87 
87 
88 
88 
90 
92 
92 
94 
95 

96 
97 
99 

99 


220 


PARAGRAPH  REFERENCE  INDEX 


CHAPTER  SUBJECT  PAR. 

Ceiling   lom 

Laying  Ceiling    lom"^ 

Limbers    lom^ 

Butts  and  Fastenings  of  Ceiling  lom^ 

Air  Course  and  Salt  Stops   lom* 

Salting    lom^ 

Double  and  Triple  Ceiling lom" 

Clamps  and   Shelf   Pieces    lom' 

Pointer   lom** 

Deck  Beams  and  Framing ion 

Lock  Shelf    lon"^ 

Lodge  Knee    ion- 
Knee   fastenings    lon^ 

Hatch  framing   ion* 

XL— SHIP  JOINERY. 

Description  of  Sheet  A iia 

"      B lib 

Dovetailing    iic 

Description  of  Sheet  C 

"      D 

"      E 

"      H 

Hinging     lid 

Mouldings    lie 

Stairs     iif 

Handrails     iig 

XII.— SAILS. 

Sails  of  a  Ship    12a 

Bark  sail    12b 

Barkentine   sails    12c 

Brig  sails  I2d 

Brigantine  sails   I2e 

Topsail  schooner  sails    I2f 

Fore  and  aft  schooner i2g 

Scow   i2h 

Cat  sails I2i 

Yawl     "       I2j 

Sloop    "       12k 

Cutter  "       12I 

Lugger "      12m 

Lateen  "      I2n 

Parts  and  Particulars  of  sails 

XIII.— RIGGING. 

Standing  rigging  described   13a 

Fastening  standing  rigging 13b 

Describing  the  Channels    13c 

Chain  plates  and  their  fastenings   13d 

Method    of    fastening    standing    rigging    to 

spars  and  hull    I3e 

List  of  ship's  standing  rigging   i3f 

Alphabetical  list  of  standing  rigging I3g 

Running  rigging   I3h 

List  of  ship's  running  rigging 131 

Fore  and  Aft  schooner's  rigging   13J 

Alphabetical  list  of  running  rigging 13k 


PAGE 
lOI 
lOI 
lOI 

102 
102 
103 
103 
104 
104 
104 
106 
106 
106 
106 


108 
110 
no 

113 

"3 
113 
116 

113 
116 
120 
122 


123 
123 
124 
124 
124 
124 

125 
125 

125 
125 

126 
126 
126 
127 
127 


129 
129 
130 
130 

130 
130 
131 
132 

133 
133 
133 


CHAPTER  SUBJECT  PAR. 

Blocks 13I 

Shell  of  a  block 13I1 

Straps  of        "      13I2 

Sheave  of        "      13I8 

Names  of  blocks   13I* 

Tackles    13m 

Knots  and  Splices   I3n 

XIV.— SPARS. 

Timber  used  for  spars   14a 

Spar  making    14b 

Mast  steps    14c 

Masts  and  Spars  of  Various  Rigs I4d 

XV.— TYPES  OF  VESSELS. 

Division  of  Vessels  into  types   15a 

One   deck  vessels    15b 

Two        "  "         15c 

Three     "  "         i5d 

Spar       "  "         ise 

Awning"  "         i5f 

Partial  awning  vessels  isg 

Shelter  deck    I5h 

Stave   deck    isi 

Flush  deck   15J 

Well  deck  Vessels  15k 

Hurricane   deck    15I 

Structural  and  House  arrangement 15m 

XVI.— ANCHORS,    CHAINS    AND    EQUIP- 
MENT. 

Anchors     l6a 

Hawse   pipes    i6b 

Chain  pipes   l6bi 

Anchor  chain    i6c 

Chain  Lockers    i6ci 

Anchor  Windlass  Hand   i6d 

Steam    i6di 

Deck  Winch   i6e 

Hand  pump   i6f 

Sounding  pipes    i6g 

Capstan    i6h 

Hand  steering  Gear   i6i 

Boats  and  their  equipment l6j 

Equipment     i6k 

Stowage  of  cargo  space  required  16I 

XVII.— RESOLUTION      AND       COMPOSI- 
TION OF  FORCES  

XVIII.— STRENGTH    AND     STRAINS     OF 
MATERIAL. 

Resistance  to  tension l8a 

"  "    compression    i8b 

"    transverse  strains   i8c 

Tenacity    i8d 

Summary   of  rules    l8e 

Compound   beams    i8f 


PAGE 

136 
136 
137 
137 
138 
139 
140 


142 
143 
143 
144 


148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
149 
149 
149 
149 


156 
157 
158 
158 
158 
158 
158 
160 
161 
161 
161 
161 
161 
163 
165 

167 


169 
169 
170 
171 
171 
173 


Alphabetical  Index 


PAR.  PAGE 

Air  course    Sr"-  60 

lom^  102 

Anchors    i6a  156 

Anchor  chain  equipment 16  166 

Anchor  Windlass,   Steam   i6di  158 

Apron    8d  49 

loh  90 

Awning   deck  vessels    iSf  '49 

B 

Bark  sails    12b  123 

Bark   spars    I4d  I44 

Barkentine    sails     12c  124 

Barkentine    spars    I4d  144 

Beams,  siding  and  moulding  of    Table  8^   65 

Bills  of  material    6a  36 

Blocks     13I  136 

Block  names   13I*  138 

Block  sheaves  described 13!''  137 

Block   shells    13!^  136 

Block  straps  described    13.1^  I37 

Boats  and  their  equipment   i6j  161 

Boiler  keelsons 8m2  56 

Brig  sails   I2d  124 

Brigantine  sails    I2e  124 

Broadside  launching 9I  79 

Builder's   tonnage    4h  28 

Building  a  ship — -explanatory   loa  80 

Building  slip  foundations    9a  67 

Building  slip  inclination     9b  67 

Building  slips  and  launching  ways   9  66 

Building  slip — Length  and  width    9d  69 

Buoyancy  curves  explained   Sd  32 

C 

Cant  frames 8k*  54 

Capstan     i6h  161 

Cat  sails   I2i  125 

Cargo  stowage  16I  i6.'5 

Caulking     8q*  57 

Ceiling    8q5  58 

lom  loi 

Ceiling — double  and  triple    iom«>  103 

Chain   i6c  158 

Chain  locker  i6ci  158 

Chain   pipes    i6b'^  158 

Chain  plates    13d  130 

Channels    13c  130 

Clamps    8r  60 

Clamps  and  shelf  pieces   lom^  104 

Coaked  scarphs  and  coaks    7d  42 

Compound  beams   i8f  173 

Construction  work    lod  87 

Converting    6c  37 

Counter  timbers    .'     8i  51 

Cradle  launching   9J  74 

Cutter  sails    12I  126 


Deadweight  explained   4h  28 

Deadwood loh  90 

loi  92 

Deadwood   aft 8h  51 

Deadwood   forward    8f  SO 

Deck  beams    8t  60 

Deck  beams  and  framing   ion  104 

Deck  framing   St^  62 

Deck  framing  under  winches,  etc 8t*  63 

Decking    Su^  64 

Diagonal  straps   8p  56 

Dimensions  of  parts    3e  22 

3d  24 

Displacement  calculations   4f  28 

4g  28 

Displacement  curve  and  deadweight  scale   ....     4k  29 

Displacement  W.L 4i  28 

Double  ceiling    • lom"  103 

Double  planking    loH  99 

lol'  99 

Dovetailing    7c  42 

lie  no 

Durability  of  woods  3a  19 


E 


PAR.  PAGE 

Edge  bolting  keel  ....*. 8b^  48 

Equipment  for  boats   l6j  161 

Equipment,  List  of i6k  163 

Estimating  and  converting 6a  36 

Estimating  material  required    lob  81 


False  keel   8h^  49 

Fastening  deck  beams  8t^  61 

Fastening  dimensions 3  21-23 

Fastening   knees    &i^  61 

Fastening  planking 8q*'  58 

Fastening  shelf    Ss^  60 

Filling  frames    8k^  53 

Floor   timbers    8ki  53 

Flush  deck  vessels    15J  I49 

Foremast  rigging    I4d  144 

Frame    8k  52 

Frame   timbers    8k2  53 

Frames,   cant    8k*  54 

Frames,  getting  out   log  88 

Framing  deck ion  104 

Framing  hatches  ion*  106 

Freeboard  mark   4J  29 


Garboard 8qi  56 

Garboard,  laying  a    loU  95 

Gross   tonnage 4c  25 

H 

Halving    7c  42 

Hand  pump  i6f  161 

Handling  material    lob  81 

Handrails    ng  122 

Hard  woods    2g  13 

Hatch  framing   8i^  62 

Hawse  pieces    81  55 

Hawse  pipes   i6b  157 

Heavy   displacement    4g  28 

Hinging    nd  113 

Hogging  strains Sb  30 

House  arrangements 15^1  149 

Hurricane  deck  vessels 15!  I49 

I 

Inclination  of  building  slip   9b  65 

Inclination  of  keel  blocking   9e  70 

Insurance  classification   la  5 

Internal  volume  or  room  in  a  ship   4I  29 


Joints  and  scarphs    7  39 

Joints  that  form  an  angle    7a  39 

Joinery   ship    i  la  108 

Joinery  illustrations  A    na  109 

Joinery  illustrations  B    lib  no 

Joinery  illustrations  C     n  113 

Joinery  illustrations  D    n  113 

Joinery  illustrations  E     1 1  113 

Joinery  illustrations  F     n  113 

Joinery  illustrations  H    n  116 

K 

Keel   blocking    9f  7i 

Keel  blocks loe  87 

Keel  construction    lof  88 

Keel  description    8b  45 

Keel  edge  laolts    8b^  48 

Keel  materials     8b^  45 

Keel  rabbet    8b8  48 

Keel  scarphs    8b2  46 

Keel  scarphs  coaked   8b*  47 

Keel  scarph  fastenings  8b*  47 

Keel  shoe    8b8  49 

Keelsons 8m  55 

Keelson  construction   loj  92 

Keelson  construction,  trussed  and  steel loj'-  93 

Keeping  track   of  materials    lob  81 

Knee   fastenings    St^  61 

ion*  106 

Knightheads    8e  50 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


PAR. 

Knots    13I 

Knots  and  splices   I3n 

L 

Lateen    sails    I2n 

Launching  apparatus   9g 

Launching  broadside    9I 

Launching  cradle    9J 

Launching  ways,  breadth  of   9h 

Light   displacement    4f 

Limber    ; lom^ 

Lloyd's   fastening   table    3d 

Lloyd's  planking  table    3c 

Lloyd's  rules    3c 

Lloyd's  scantling  table    3c 

Load   curves    Si 

Local    strains    Si 

Lock   shelf loni 

Lock  or  thick  strakes   8u^ 

Lodge   knees    lon^ 

Longitudinal  strains   Sa 

5g 
Lugger  sails    12m 

M 

Machinery  in  shipyards    lob 

Management    loc 

Mast  partner  framing    Sf 

Mast  steps   14c 

Mast  timber    14a 

Masts  and  spars  of  various  rigs   I4d 

Masts  and  spars — alphabetical    list    I4d 

Material  Bills 6a 

Mouldings    lie 

O 

One-decked  vessels    iSb 

P 

Panama  Canal  tonnage   4e 

Partial  awning-deck  vessels    iSg 

Piles    9C 

Planking    8q 

lol 

Planking  fastenings   8q'' 

Plans  and  specifications   lob 

Plans  and  specifications  described    lob 

Pointers    lom* 

R 

Registered  tonnage  4a 

Resistance  to  compression    iSb 

"  "  tension     i8a 

"  "  transverse   strains    iSc 

Rider  keelsons    Sm* 

Rigging  of  fore  and  aft  schooner    13J 

Rigging,  running I3h 

Rigging,   standing    13a 

Running  rigging  of  a  ship  I3i 

Running  rigging — alphabetical  list    13k 

s 

Sails,  Bark     12b 

"       Barkentine    12c 

"       Brig    I2d 

"       Brigantine    I2e 

"       Cat     1 2i 

Cutter 12I 

"       Description   of    12 

"       Fore  and  Aft  Schooner  I2g 

"       Lateen     I2n 

"       Lugger    12m 

"       Schooner    I2f 

"       Scow    i2h 

"       Sloop     12k 

"       Yawl    I2j 

Salt  stops   lom* 

Salting     lom'^ 

Scarphs  of  various  kinds    7b 

Schooner   spars    14a 

Selecting  timber    6b 


PAGE 

136 
140 


127 
71 
79 
74 
73 
28 

lOI 

21 
21 
20 
20 
33 
35 

106 
64 

106 
30 
33 

126 


81 

86 

63 

143 

142 

144 

144 

36 

116 


149 


27 
149 
68 
56 
95 
58 
81 
81 
104 


25 
169 
169 
170 

S6 
133 
132 
129 
133 
133 


123 

124 
124 
124 
124 
126 
127 
125 
127 
126 
124 
125 
126 
125 
102 
103 

40 
142 

36 


PAR. 

Shade-deck  vessels    151 

Sheer  strakes    8q- 

Sheer  strake  construction   lol'^ 

Shelf     8s 

Shelf  pieces   .■ .  . .    lom^ 

Shelter-deck  vessels   i5h 

Slip  inclination    9b 

Slip   length   and   width    pd   ' 

Slips   and   ways    9a 

Ship's  sails     12a 

Ship's  spars     i4d 

Ship's  standing   rigging    i3f 

Sister  keelsons "i-m- 

Soft  woods    2h 

Sounding  pipes    i6g 

Spar  making   14b 

Spars  of  various  rigs   i4d 

Spars,  timber  for   14a 

Specifications   described    lob 

Splices i3n 

Stairs     i  if 

Standing   rigging — alphabetical    list I3g 

Standing   rigging   fastenings    I3e 

Steel  bracing  pf  frames    8p 

lok 

Steel  strapping  of  frame    lok 

Steering  gear    i6i 

Stem     8c 

loh 

Stemson    8n 

Stern  post   8g 

loi 

Sternson     80 

Stopwaters  in  keel  scarphs   8b^ 

Stowage  of  cargo   16I 

Strains  caused  by  propulsion    5j 

Strains,   Hogging,  explained    5b 

Strains,  local     5! 

Strains,  longitudinal  among  waves    5g 

Strains,  longitudinal  bending  in  still  water  ....     sa 

Strains,  sagging,   explained    5c 

Strains,  transverse    sh 

Structural  arrangements   15m 

Suez  Canal  tonnage    4e 

Supervision    loc 

T 

Tackles    13I 

Tackles  described   13m 

Tenacity     i8a 

Thick  strakes 8u^ 

Three-decked  vessels   I5d 

Timber  bending  2d 

Timber,  care  of   ■ . .     2c 

Timber,  properties  of   Table 

Timber  seasoning    2e 

Timber  shrinkage  while   seasoning    2f 

Timber   for    shipbuilding    2b 

Timber   for  spars    14a 

Tonnage  explained   4a 

Tonnage,  gross,   explained     4c 

Tonnage,   Panama  and  Suez    \ .  .  .     4e 

Tonnage,  Registered    4d 

Transverse  strains    Sh 

Trees,   cultivation   of    2a 

Triple   ceiling    lom" 

Triple  planking   „ lol'' 

Two-decked  vessels    15c 

Types  of  vessels    isa 

V 

Vessels,  awning  decked    isf 

fiush  "         15J 

"  hurricane    "  15I 

"  one-decked     15b 

"  partial  awning  decked   isg 

"  shade   decked    isi 

shelter      "         ish 

"  spar    decked    I5e 

"  three-decked    isd 

"  two-decked     15c 

"     types  of  15a 

well  decked  15k 


149 

57 

96 

60 

104 

149 

66 

69 

66 

123 

144 

130 

56 

16 

161 

142 

144 

142 

81 

140 

120 

131 

130 

56 

94 

94 
161 

49 
90 

56 
51 
92 

56 

47 

149 

35 
31 
35 
33 
30 
31 
34 
149 
27 
86 


136 

139 
169 

64 
149 

10 

9 

2  18 
12 

13 

8 
142 
25 
25 
27 
26 

34 

8 

103 

99 

149 
149 


148 
149 
149 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
148 
149 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX 


223 


PAR.  PAGE 

w 

Wales    8q3  57 

loe-  87 

W.   L.   Light   displacement    41  28 

Waterways    8u  64 

Ways,   distance   apart    pi  73 

Ways,  launching    9*  66 

Weight  distribution  curves   Se  32 


PAR. 

Well    deck    vessels     15k 

Winches,   deck    l6e 

Windlass,    steam    i6di 

Woods,  hard  woods  described   2g 

W^oods,  information  about   2 

Woods,  soft   woods   described    2h 

Y 

Yawl  sails .  .*. i2j 


PAGE 

149 
i6o 

158 

14 

7 

16 


125 


Index  to  Illustrations 


FIG.  .  PAGE 

1  Timber  properly  piled   9 

2  Bending  timber    10 

3  "  "  " 

4  "  "  " 

5  "  "  II 

6  "  " II 

7  "  "         12 

8  "  "  12 

9  Tonnage   measurement    27 

10  Freeboard  mark 29 

11  Displacement  and  surplus  buoyancy   28 

12  Strains  in  still  water 30 

13  "       "       "         "      30 

14  Hogging  strains  31 

14a  Sagging  strains    31 

15  Weight  W.  W.  W 31 

15a  Weight   W 31 

15b  Weight  W.  W.i  W.2    32 

16  Curves  of  buoyancy   32 

17  Curves  of  weight  33 

18  Curves  of  loads   33 

19  Longitudinal  strains  among  waves   33 

20  "  "  33 

21  Transverse  strains  when  afloat    34 

Scarphs  Plate  Vila 39 

Vllb    40 

VIIc    ; 41 

"       Vlld    40 

"       Vile    42 

"       yilf    43 

25  Longitudinal  view  (profile)    44 

26  Deck  view    45 

27  Deck  hatch    45 

28  Cross   section    46 

29  Photo  keel  being  set  up   47 

30  Photo  of  keel   48 

31  Keel  scarph   48 

33  Coaked  scarph    49 

34  Keel   stopwater    49 

35  Stem  construction  assembled    50 

36  Stem  construction   50 

37  Stern  post  construction  sailing  vessel   51 

38  Stern  post  construction  and  shaft  log • 51 

39  Screw   propeller   stern   post   construction    52 

40  Electrical   stern   construction    52 

41  Room  and  space    S3 

42  Canted  frame  in  position   54 

42a  Midship  construction  plan    55 

43  Planking  and  sheer  scarph 57 

43a  Ceiling  fastening   59 

43b  Bottom  ceiling  in  a  vessel   59 

44  Caulking  bottom  plank  seams    58 

45  Single,  double  and  alternate  plank  fastenings    ....   60 

46  Rules  for  spacing  butt  planking  fastenings   61 

47  Treenails  ready  to  drive   61 

49     Straps  on  stanchion   62 

51  Forward  deck  frames 64 

52  Knees — Steel  and  wood    64 

53  Waterways     65 

54  "  6s 

■55     End  of  deck  let  into  waterway   65 

56  Plank  of  building  slip    66 

57  New  York  Ship  Yard  Launching    67 

58  Outer  end  of  launching  ways 70 

59  Going  down  way  71 

60  Longitudinal  outline  or  clearance   71 


FIG.  PAGE 

61  Keel   blocks   set   up    , 71 

62  Ready  for  launching 72 

63  Moving  into  water   73 

64  Cross  section  of  launching  cradle   74 

65  Longitudinal  view  of  cradle    74 

66  Launching  motor  ship   75 

67  Launching    76 

68  Floating  clear  Tj 

69  Broadside  launching   79 

70  "  "  78 

71  Timber  trucks    83 

72  Hoists  in  a  shipyard    84 

73  Templates  in  mould  loft 87 

74  Assembling  a  forward  frame  88 

75  "  a  midship  frame   88 

76  Setting  up  a  frame 89 

76a  Erecting  a  midship  frame    89 

77  Platform    for    erecting    frame    and    midship    frame 

set  up 90 

78  Bilge  ribband  and  stem  set  up    90 

79  Stem  and  forward  deadwood    91 

80  Forward  cant  frames   91 

81  Air-operated  augers     s 92 

8ia     "  "  " 92 

82  Stern  post  framing   93 

83  Framed   ready   for   planks    94 

84  .Steel  Keelson  Construction   94 

84a  Cross  section  details  of  steel  Keelson   95 

85  Arched  wood  Keelson  Construction  95 

86  Trussed  wood       "  "  96 

86a  Tie  Rods  and  straps  97 

87  Trussed  steel  Keelson  construction    98 

88  Steel  diagonal  straps   99 

89  Planking  Bevel  at  rabbet   95 

90  Frame  ready  for  sheer  plank loo 

91  Planked  ready  for  shutter   loi 

91a  Double   planking    102 

91b  Triple  planking    102 

92  First  planks  of  bottom  ceiling  in  place   103 

93  Caulking  bottom  planks    103 

94  Breast  hook — Knee  Construction    104 

93     Deck  Hanging  Knees 104 

95a  Large  natural  Knees    10.5 

96  Deck  hatch  coaming  framing 105 

97  Pneumatic  hammer  in  use   106 

98  Bitts   and   Knee    106 

99  Pneumatic   caulking   tool  in  use    107 

loi      Ship's    sails    123 

102  Stay  sails    123 

103  Barque  sails 123 

104  Barkentine  sails 124 

105  Brig  sails    124 

106  Brigantine   sails    124 

107  Topsail  schooner  sails   125 

108  Fore  and  aft  schooner  sails 125 

109  Cat  sails    125 

1 10  Yawl  sails   126 

1 1 1  Sloop  sails   126 

1 12  Cutter  sails    126 

1 13  Lugger   sails 126 

1 14  Lateen  sails   126 

1 15  Square    sails    127 

1 16  Triangular  sails    128 

1 17  Gaff  sails    128 

1 18  Chain  plates  and  channels   130 


224 


INDEX    TO    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

119  Ship's  Standing  rigging  130 

120  Rigged  foremast   14S 

121  Manila   rope    132 

122  Running  rigging  of  ships   133 

123  Fore  and  aft  schooner  rigging    133 

123a  Blocks  and  parts  136 

123b  Tackles   137 

123c  Tackles    138 

123d  Knots    139 

I23e  Knots     139 

I23f  Splices    141 

I23g  Rope    140 

124  Making  spars    142 

125  Rounding  spars    142 

126  Details  of  ship's  mast 142 

127  Shapes  and  name  of  various  spars   143 

128  Mast's  part  and  details   142 

129  Mast  top  and  rigging 143 

130  Ship's  spars   144 

131  Barque  spars  144 

132  Barkentine  spars   144 

133  Rigged  foremast   145 

134  Bowsprit  and  parts  143 

13s  RQD,  EBH  and  TF  arrangement  of  house 149 

136  RQD,  EBH  and  TF  house  with  DB   149 

137  FP,  EBH,  TF  house  149 

138  LFP,  EBH,  TF  house    149 

139  LRQD,  EBH  and  TF  house   149 

140  HD,  SD — Passenger  Vessel   149 

141  Sailing  Vessel  RQD,  F.  2  Decks  150 

142  Flush  Deck  Vessel   149 

143  Four  Wood  Cargo  Carriers    150 


FIG.  PAGE 

144  Cargo  Carrier   150 

145  "Constitution",  Frigate    151 

146  Yacht  151 

146a  Hydroplane  tender  (52  ft.)   (J.  M.  Watts) 152 

147  South  Carolina,  Battle  Ship    153 

148  Mine  Sweeper 153 

149  Concrete  Ships.    Faith   154 

150  "  "  "        154 

151  80  ft.  Fishing  Schooner  Auxiliary 155 

152  Light  Ships   iss 

153  Schooner     155 

154  Motor  Ship    155 

155  Ship    155 

156  Stockless  anchor   156 

157  Stockless  anchor  in  place    156 

158  Common  Bower  anchor   157 

159  Patent  Bower  anchor  with  hinged  arm    157 

160  Anchor  with  stock  hoisted  in  position  on  Bow....  158 

161  Stream  and  Kedge  anchors   158 

162  Hawse   pipes   for   stockless  anchors    159 

163  Chain  pipe   158 

164  Steam  Windlass  with  parts   161 

165  Anchor  chain  and  shackles 160 

166  Hand  operated  anchor  windlass  on  Whalers   160 

167  Detail  and  part  of  Hand  Windlass  161 

168  Steam  anchor  windlass   162 

169  Steam  deck  winch    161 

170  Deck  of  motor  ship   162 

171  Hand  operated  deck  winch   161 

172  Hand  operated  Bilge  pump   161 

173  Hand  operated  Capstan    i6l 

174  Hand  Steering  Gear 161 


Plans 


FIG.  PAGE 

200  Lines  and  Rigging  292  Schooner  (Crowninshield)  .180 

201  Construction  details  motor  ship  "James  Timpson".l8l 

202  Construction  details  Steam  trawler   184 

203  80  ft.  Fishing  Schooner  186 

204  Plan  New  Bedford  Whaler   187 

205  270  ft.  cargo  carrier  (E.  B.  Schock)   188 

206  220  ft.  Auxiliary  Schooner  (E.  B.  Schock)    189 

207  223  ft.  4  mast  schooner  (Cox  &  Stevens)   190 

208  224  ft.  Schooner  (E.  B.  Schock)    191 


FIG.  PAGE 

209  235  ft.  Auxiliary  Schooner  (J.  M.  Watts)    191 

210  Mast  Boom  Gaff  Rigging  5  Mast  Schooner  (G.  B. 

Douglas)     192 

211  Mast  and  Details  of  Yard  (G.  B.  Douglas)   193 

212  200  ft.  Auxiliary  Schooner  (Cox  &  Stevens)   194 

213  152  ft.  Auxiliary  (J.  G.  Alden)    196 

214  N.  Y.  Pilot  Boat  (J.  G.  Douglas)  198 

215  47  ft.  Tug  (J.  M.  Watts)   199 

217  77  ft.  Schooner    200 


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Naval    Architecture    Simplified.      By   Chas,    Desmond 5.00 

A  Text  Book  of  Laying  Off.     By  Attwood  and  Cooper 2.00 

Elements  of  Yacht  Design.      By   N.   L.   Skene 2.00 

Handbook  of  Ship  Calculations,  Construction  and  Operation 5.00 

Laying  Down  and  Taking  Off.      By  Desmond 2.00 

Machinery's    Handbook    6.00 

Manual  of  Yacht  and  Boat  Sailing  and  Yacht  Architecture.      Kemp  15.00 

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Laying  Down 
and  Taking  Off 

By  CHARLES  DESMOND 


THE  few  men  understanding  Mould  Loft  Work 
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Naval 

Architecture 

Simplified 

HE  study  of  Naval  Architecture  is  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
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the  rudimentary  knowledge  is  not  acquired  under  the 
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The  various  books  on  the  subject  while  very  thorough  are 
too  far  advanced  for  the  student  to  grasp. 

Naval  Architecture  Simplified,  by  Charles  Desmond,  was  written 
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In  order  that  the  theory  might  be  properly  understood,  the  work  is 
illustrated  and  described  in  detail,  and  while  intended  primarily  for 
students,  there  is  a  fund  of  information  of  value  to  all  Naval  Architects. 

After  many  years  of  study  both  from  the  theoretical  and  practical 
side  Mr.  Desmond  prepared  a  course  of  instruction,  by  correspondence, 
and  enrolled  students  in  all  parts  of  the  world  in  his  school. 

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